





^ 



CONTENTS 



CFLAPTER •_ . PAGE 

/ I. The History Recitation . . . ^^.. jT .^. . -, ^ 

'l II. Teaching Pupils to study History^vv^^^. . . . 31 
III. Special iMethods of Procedure: Lecture and 

Textbook 1 . . . , . . 48 

V IV. Special Methods of Procedure : Topical, Source, 

and Problem .... - 69 

V. Progress within the Subject 94 

;WI. Written Work in High-School History; -t . . . 116 

^'VII. The Term Paper an6 the Permanent Notebook 139 

VIII. Measuring the Results of History Teaching. . 154 

IX. Library and Collateral-Reading Problems''*^ . 176 

X. Teaching Current Events in Connection with 

/ High-School History, 199 

T\^L Planning the Course and the Lesson-^^*^ . . . 214 

XII. The High-School History Teacher 246 

INDEX 285 



"■'"l^' 



; 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

IN JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH 

SCHOOLS 

CHAPTER I 

THE HISTORY RECITATION 

A history teacher's success is largely determined by what 
goes on from day to day in the recitation period. While it is 
highly desirable that a teacher possess certain personal and 
social qualities, it is nevertheless true that he must be able to 
show considerable skill in conducting a recitation in order long 
to maintain his existence in a progressive school system. Since 
this fact is so generally accepted, the problem for the actual 
or would-be history teacher becomes one of mastering a recita- 
tion technic, the application of which v/ill give worth-while 
results. However, before one can master this technic, one 
must objectify it and analyze it into its component parts to dis- 
cover the contribution of each of these parts to a well-conducted 
recitation. In other words, one must see that certain condi- 
tions are requisite to a good recitation in history, that there 
are definite principles to apply, standards to attain, and qual- 
ities to seek ; that there are also certain forms or types of 
a recitation to employ, definite things to do in making an 
effective assignment of a history lesson, a legitimate amount 
of time due the pupils in most recitations, and a proper num- 
ber and a desirable kind of questions to ask. It is to a 
consideration of all these important phases of the history 
teacher's daily work that this first chapter is devoted. 



2 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

- Conditions Necessary to a Good Recitation 
IN History 

Before a history teacher can expect to do effective teaching 
le must surround himself and the class with conditions neces- 
sary to a good recitation. Generally speaking, these conditions 
ire freedom from distraction by the teacher, the pupils^ and 
he outside world ; interest and enthusiasm on the part of the 
eacher and the pupils ; carefully planned work on the part of 
he teacher and carefully prepared work on the part of the 
Dupils ; high standards of attainment ; a spirit of co operati on 
md sympathy ; and pupils surrounded with suitable materi al 
jquipment.^ All of these are both desirable and necessary. The 
najority of them are also under the direct control of the 
eacher. The two not completely under his control are distrac- 
ions from the outside world and the proper environment in 
he matter of heat, light, and a room of suitable size and 
ippropriately supplied with desks, tables, chairs, and historical 
aboratory equipment. State and municipal regulations may 
dd in securing the first of these exceptions, but if a history 
eacher gets what is absolutely necessary for effective work in 
he line of maps, charts, pictures, diagrams, models, books, and 
nagazines, he will often need to use all the persuasive powers 
it his command to convince superintendents and school boards 
hat he deserves an equipment for his subject, history, equal 
o that which is almost universally supplied for physics, chem- 
stry, manual training, and domestic science ; and that to do 
;ood work in history he should have his share of the money 
;rhich is too often lavishly spent in equipping laboratories, 
hops, and cooking establishments in high schools. 

While a teacher does not have full control of the distractions 
rom the outside world, he is personally responsible for those 
reated either by himself or by a member of the class. Here 
:> a high-school student's actual description of her history 

1 G. H. Betts, The Recitation, pp. Si ff. 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 3 

teachers who hindered the progress of their recitations by 
their self-created distractions and exasperating annoyances: 

The teacher of Greek history was a nervous little old woman who 
did not seem to know what she was going to do next. She would 
bob around the room continually, no matter whether she was ex- 
plaining something or one of the pupils was reciting. This seemed 
to me very annoying and distracted attention from the work. Be- 
sides this, she talked extremely fast and her voice did not carry 
well. She very seldom repeated her statements or questions when 
asked to, but more often gave one a zero for inattention. When this 
happened two or three times, it usually led to discouragement and, 
on the part of several including myself, to stubbornness. The 
Roman history teacher was quite a different individual. She was 
a fluffy little middle-aged woman who tried to act like a girl 
of sixteen. She had many new and fancy clothes which caused a 
great deal of comment among the girls and boys of her classes. 
She was always careful to strike a becoming pose when sitting or 
standing, which disgusted the girls and made the boys snicker 
quite often. 

While these are in all probability extreme cases, the fact 
remains, however, that the teacher is occasionally the distrac- 
tion which most interferes with the progress of the recitation. 

Of all the fact ors essential to a good recitation in hi gtnry_ 
none arejnore important than interest and enthusi asm, oii the 
pa rt of the teacher. These plus a charming personality are the 
main factors so far as the teacher is concerned in causing high- 
school pupils to like and appreciate history. "I liked and ap- 
preciated history in the high school because of a wide-awake, 
interested, and enthusiastic teacher" occurs over and over 
again in the answers of high-school graduates to the question, 
"Why did you like history in the high school?" Typical of 
many of these answers is the one which reads : 

The reason I liked history in high school was because the teacher 
under whom I started was unusually good. He made the subject 
very interesting and it was no longer a forced subject, but I loved 



I' 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

to study it. When I took up medieval history, my teacher was 
changed and my interest shifted too. This teacher was not as 
enthusiastic as the former and failed to arouse an appreciation for 
this period of history; consequently it was of very little interest to 
me. My history teacher for the last two years of high school was 
a lady of remarkable personality who seemed to radiate her enthu- 
siasm for the subject. She strove to arouse and guide our appre- 
ciation and to elevate and train our taste, as well as to impart 
knowledge and to increase skill. The interest she aroused was not a 
means, but served as a motive, for the acquisition of knowledge and 
for the formation of right habits of thought and action. 

Carefully planned work on the part of the teacher, carefully 
prepared work on the part of the pupils, and high standards 
of attainment are also prerequisites to a good recitation in 
history. A teacher who has labored through a recitation for 
which neither he himself nor his pupils had especially pre- 
pared knows how painful such an experience really is. Exi- 
gencies of time occasionally compel all parties concerned in a 
recitation to approach it somewhat unprepared. Making due 
allowance, however, for all such occasions, there should be no 
escape for a single individual from a painstaking preparation 
of the material on which each history recitation is to be based. 
A good rule for the teacher to follow in this matter is always 
to be sure that each student knows in advance exactly what is 
required of him and subsequently to see that each one lives up 
to this requirement to the best of his ability. As for his own 
preparation, the ideal for the teacher is to have the entire 
course planned in considerable detail before beginning to 
teach it. Evidently no teacher can know on beginning a course 
just what he is going to do on the sixteenth day of the se- 
mester. To be prepared in detail he does not need to know 
this, for what he does on this particular day will be determined 
by what he did on the fifteenth and the fourteenth or possibly 
on all of the fifteen preceding days. The detail that he does 
need to know consists of the general organiza':ion!iBf the field 



THE HISTORY RECITATION S 

of history to be taught, the dates-events worth remembering, 
the personages to be known, and the maps to be made. He 
should also have in his possession a teaching outline of each 
main division of the field with the best available references, 
maps, charts, pictures, and similar supplementary materials 
indicated in their proper places. Painstaking carefulness in the 
organization and preparation of work on the part of the teacher 
will invariably pay big dividends in the form of well-prepared 
work on the part of the pupils, because the teacher will be 
able to make clear from day to day just what is required and 
will consequently be in a position to demand that each pupil 
live up to the requirements to the best of his ability. All of 
this in the end will result in recitations where high standards 
of attainment are maintained. Slackers will soon discover that 
to come to a recitation unprepared is a very disagreeable ex- 
perience, one which they will not desire to undergo repeatedly. 



Governing Principles and Fundamental Qualities TT 

If a history teacher wishes to become an artist in the matter 
of planning, managing, and conducting a recitation, it will be 
necessary fop-iiim to master and apply the old and familiar 
principles of unity^ proportion, and coherence. In all probabil- 
ity the application d^hesepri^iqiples will be a conscious one 
on the part of beginnersTWt with the^aeeumulation of success- 
ful teaching experience they will be applied with ease and 
facility quite unconsciously. There are, of course, certain 
types of formal work such as drill and miscellaneous reviews 
in which one does not expect to apply them. Generally speak- 
ing, however, as the work progresses from day to day there 
will be few meritorious recitations that ignore them entirely. 

How the principles of unity, proportion, and coherence can 
be applied in a single recitation period in history may be illus- 
trated by the following concrete example. The assignment for 
the recita^on in question was on early canals and railroads in 



6 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

the United States. The three main topics for consideration 
were the Erie Canal in New York, 1817-1825, canal construc- 
tion in other states, and the first American raihoads. mu the 
recitation based on this assignment unified thinking was at- 
tained in many ways. In the first place the whole discussion 
centered on early canals and railroads in the United States. 
Everything said and done throughout the period related di- 
rectly to the main topic. The members of the class knew at 
every stage of the recitation what phase of the main topic was 
under consideration. Other unifying phases of this same recita- 
tion were the position of the pupil in front of the class when 
making a recitation of some length, the use of maps, charts, 
sketches, and drawings large enough for the entire class to see, 
and the summary at the close of the period. All these unify- 
ing devices were employed with excellent results. The summary 
served to bring together the main features of the discussion 
and leave the class with a, unified body of material. A review 
at the beginning of the period was instrumental in unifying the 
work of the previous day with that of the present. 

The principle of proportion was applied in this particular 
recitation in two ways ; namely, giving a specific amount of 
time to each phase of the recitation and devoting a specific 
amount of the time allowed for the new material to each of 
the three subtopics. The phases of the recitation were as^ 
signment, review, consideration of the new lesson, and the 
summary. To each of these was given a specific amount of the 
entire time of the period, thus applying the principle of pro- 
portion. The twenty-five minutes devoted to the consideration 
of the new material was distributed in such a way as to bring 
out what one of the three subtopics was of most importance, 
what one next, and what one least. The class was conscious of 
this distribution, and when the summary was made by one of 
the members the three subpoints were emphasized in about 
the same proportion that they had been in the original 
discussion. 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 7 

Coherence was much in evidence in the recitation under con- 
sideration. The review connected the past material with the 
present. Inasmuch as the lesson the day before was on the 
general subject of internal improvements, it was important that 
the relation of the previous work to the present be shown. The 
summary also served to tie the work of the day more firmly to 
that of previous days, thus applying the important principle of 
coherence. Individual recitations of some length on each of 
the three subtopics also served to give a connected view of the 
material relating thereto.^ Thus it will be seen from this brief 
description of an actual recitation in history that the principles 
of unity, proportion, and coherence can be applied in teaching 
just as they are in literature and art. 

Besides controlling principles there are certain fundamental 
qualities of a teaching exercise that it is well for a history 
teacher to keep in mind if he is to achieve other than mediocre 
results. These^are clear ness, force, and fine_adaptation. The 
boy who said that a ^^ furlough" is a ''mule" is a splendid 
example of the need of clearness. This same boy attempted 
to prove that he was right by citing the picture of a soldier 
on a mule, with the legend, "Going Home on a Furlough." 
There are certain unavoidable defects in history texts which 
make it imperative for the teacher to keep the quality of 
clearness always in evidence during the recitation. Text- 
books in history by necessity are made up largely of 
generalizations ; they also contain many unfamiliar words, as 
well as words express: ^ng ideas differing greatly from the ideas 
commonly associated with them. The history teacher must 
continuously be on his guard for all such pitfalls. To make 
the abstract generalizations of the text concrete, he must use 
an abundance of illustrative material in the form of supple- 
mentary reading, pictures, diagrams, sketch maps, and charts ; 
and to clear up any misconceptions which are likely to result 

1 The recitation described above was taught by H. C, Hill, of The 
University of Chicago High School. 



8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

from familiar words used figuratively or expressing ideas not 
usually associated with them, he will need to give such words 
special attention. The necessity for care along both of these 
lines will be brought home to the teacher every time he reads 
a set of test papers, in which he is sure to find words used 
incorrectly, facts wrongly applied, and, in truth, all sorts of 
historical monstrosities. To minimize the misconceptions he 
is sure to find on testing his teaching for the quality of clear- 
ness, the history teacher must plan a multitude of schemes to 
determine the clarity of his own and the textbook's presenta- 
tion of the subject as well as to give the pupils every possible 
opportunity to express in their own words what they have 
gleaned onf any given subject from various sources ; for it is 
only through the exercise of vigilant care and intelligent fore- 
sight that the history teacher can feel sure that his presentation 
of the (Subject contains the all-important quality of clearness. 

The quality of force is a spiritual one and consequently diffi- 
cult to define and measure. One can recognize it in a recitation 
when one sees it, but just how to attain it is not easy to tell. 
It depends very largely upon the interest and enthusiasm of 
the teacher. An enthusiastic and interested teacher begets in 
a class like characteristics. A teacher full of vivacity, natural 
vigor, and life will fill his class with similar desirable qualities. 
Forceful history teaching is almost sure to be good teaching, 
since much of the value of historical instruction lies in the last- 
ing impressions made upon the students. Recitations continu- 
ously lacking in force seldom make any impressions at all on a 
class. A dead history recitation is certainly not to be tolerated. 
A study so teeming with life must be forcefully taught. By con- 
scious striving a teacher whose recitations are lacking the 
quality of force may in time acquire considerable skill in 
injecting this desirable quality into them. 

Fine adaptation is a prerequisite to the qualities of clear- 
ness and force. If what the teacher is teaching is not 
adapted to the age, interest, and capacity of the pupils, it will 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 9 

unfailingly be difficult to make it either clear or f zebA. The 
great problem of adapting history to children both in thv-? 
elementary and in the secondary schools is far from a satisi' 
factory solution. As the situation now stands, it is incumbent 
upon the individual teacher to take the material outlined in 
the course of study or in the textbook and to adapt it to 
those he is teaching. He can be materially aided in this matter 
if both syllabus and text strive to select and discuss only the 
topics and movements which are' adaptable to the pupils for 
whom they are intended. Since this is a condition still to be 
dreamed of, the teacher will need to give much attention to the 
matter of adaptation ; and since adapting history to high-school 
pupils is so much a problem of method of presentation, there 
is much necessity for a careful consideration of this problem. 
What is meant here is this : The American Revolution is taught 
on both the junior and the senior high-school level. It often 
happens that a teacher presents this subject to the same pupils 
on each of these levels. In all such cases the material taught 
would have to be adapted to the age and capacity of the pupils 
largely through the method of presentation. Facts relating 
to the Stamp Act Congress, the Boston Tea Party, England's 
commercial policy toward the colonies, and the battles of 
Bunker Hill and Lexington and Concord might be taught on 
each level, but if the same devices and methods of presentation 
were used in both cases, there would certainly be a lack of 
adaptation on one of the levels. Thus it will be seen that adapt- 
ing to the pupils the material taught in any given recitation 
is a problem of supreme importance and one largely left for 
the individual teacher to solve. 



Controlling Aims ; . 



History teachers are often accused of doing indefinite teach- 
ing. This criticism has resulted in wholesome efforts on the 
part of some teachers to make their work more definite. 



10 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

T'l ccomplish this by setting up specific objectives for a 
jc; 1/ jf lessons or even a single lesson. If a teacher sets out to 
teach the American Revolution with a very explicit aim in 
mind and tests his results strictly according to it, he will escape 
the criticism of indefiniteness so common and so just nowadays. 
Besides the explicit aim that the teacher may have in mind 
in teaching the American Revolution or a similar topic, there 
are certain specific aims common to all recitations. These are 
no other than the common ones of testing, teaching, and drill. 
Whatever else he does with the assignment made the day before, 
the history teacher must unfailingly test the pupils' preparation 
of what he has assigned them ; and since knowledge of history 
and historical movements will always remain one of the legiti- 
mate goals of all history teaching, he will need to test the 
actual knowledge his pupils are acquiring as they proceed along 
the historical way. If he is unacquainted with the class, he 
will also want to spend much time in testing habits of study, 
since it is only by this means that he will be able to locate im- 
proper methods and to supplant them with proper ones. During 
the time of the recitation given over to such testing the teacher 
should secure the information necessary to make it possible for 
him to diagnose the cause of both general and individual 
failures. He can also check his own skill in applying the prin- 
ciples and qualities discussed above. Such a self-examination 
may often bring disappointments, but will in the end work for 
the good of all concerned. 

' The history teacher's real skill is best evidenced by his 
ability to do what in reality he is paid to do ; namely, teach. 
To teach, however, does not necessarily mean to do all the re- 
citing. This may be advisable occasionally but not often. 

j Among other things, high-school history teaching means ( i ) giv- 
ing the pupils opportunities to express themselves concerning 

1 things they have read ; ( 2 ) correcting wrong impressions 

\ wherever they exist; (3) helping pupils to master and 
\ to organize related historical facts ; (4) giving additional 






THE HISTORY RECITATION ii 

information which the teacher has acquired through reading and 
travel ; ( 5 ) having at hand at the opportune time illustrative 
materials to make abstract and general statements concrete and 
meaningful ; (6) developing certain principles underlying history- 
study; and (7) inspiring pupils to better efforts, not only in 
history but in all phases of their work both in and out of school. 
In spite of the fact that he may run the risk of being dry 
and formal, the history teacher should spend some time in 
actual drill work. Before this can be profitably done, however, 
he must have definitely in mind the phases of the work which 
he hopes to make automatic. Quite often too much is at- 
tempted along this line, with the accompanying result of mak- 
ing little or nothing automatic. There are, of course, certain 
dates in each field of history which must be learned for all 
time, personages who ought to be known very intimately, 
maps which must be produced from memory, large historical 
movements which need to be known and remembered as unified 
wholes. Before the teacher can do any effective drill on dates, 
personages, maps, and the story of large movements, he must 
decide with definiteness just what is to be included in each of 
these lines. In other words, before beginning his work as a 
teacher of American history, or in any other field of history for 
that matter, the history teacher ought to make a list of dates- 
events to identify and remember, of personages to know, of 
maps to make — and he ought to formulate an overview or 
story of the entire field. Having done these things he will 
never be uncertain about the drill phases of the work — a very 
desirable state of mind in which to be. Of course the teacher's 
method of teaching facts of this character will make certain 
that there is much content associated with them before any 
drill upon them. A good way to think of such material is to 
look upon it as forming the multiplication tables of history, 
which are to be drilled upon and known quite automatically 
just as the tables in arithmetic are.^ 

1 See Chapter XI for a full treatment'of this phase of the teacher's work. 



12 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

(J>^''" Management 

The ordinary rules of scientific management are undeniably 
as germane to a high-school history recitation as to the manage- 
ment of a farm, a factory, a shop, a store, or a household. 
In discussing the application of some principles of scientific 
management to city-school systems, one writer mentions 
among others the following principle as especially rele- 
vant to the management of city schools : " The worker must 
be kept supplied with detailed instruction as to the work to 
be done, the standards to be reached, the methods to be em- 
ployed, and the appliances to be used."^ If one substitutes the 
word ^'student" for the word ^'worker" in this quotation, one 
has an excellent principle of guidance for the high-school his- 
tory teacher. When students are kept supplied with specific 
instructions as to the work to be done, the standards to be 
reached, the methods to be employed, and the materials to be 
used, they will work with a definiteness hitherto unknown. 
Recitation standards must be well understood by all concerned ; 
the general method of procedure must be no secret of the 
teacher's ; the directions for preparing the work for the daily 
recitation must be so explicit that no one can fail to understand 
and to meet them ; and, finally, the maps, charts, reference books, 
and all other classroom equipment must be as familiar to the 
pupils as to the teacher. Few will question the validity of these , 
statements. Their application is sure to result in tangible 
rewards. 

Besides applying the foregoing principle of ordinary business 
procedure, the history teacher must also master some of the 
technic of history-recitation management. What is meant 
by this is that he will have to learn to utilize at the prober 
time and in tiie proper place all the resources at his command. 
A special report has been planned to make concrete some 

1 J. F. Bobbitt, " Some General Principles of Management applied to 
the Problems of City-School Systems," Tzoelfth Year Book of the Natiojial 
Society for the Sitidy of Ediicatio7i, Part I, p. 89. 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 13 

abstract statement of the text. Able manipulation brings this 
forth at the opportune time. An illustrative source extract is 
to be read when a certain point in the recitation is reached. 
Efficient direction sees to it that this source is at hand and 
read. An appropriate picture, sketch, chart, or what not is to 
be used somewhere in the lesson. A skillful manager will have 
these at hand and use them at the appropriate time and place. 
To manage a history recitation scientifically and effectively is 
not the work of a neophyte. Skill in it comes only through 
much experience and careful attention to all of its phases. 

Two examples of good management have recently come to 
the writer's attention. One of these divides the recitation into 
four parts, as follows : review, recitaiiqn upon assigned work, 
summary, and the advanced assignmen^. The review usually 
takes five or ten minutes and aims to do two things : first, to 
emphasize and throw new light on facts of the previous lesson, 
and, secondly, to connect past and present material. The 
recitation proper usually takes the form, of questions and 
answers, narrative account of certain topics, or a combination of 
the two, in which case the teacher calls on one pupil to discuss 
fully one topic in the lesson outline." When this pupil has 
finished, the teacher brings out by questions additional points 
of information and connection. Into this part of the recitation 
period the teacher often introduces readings by himself or by 
pupils, special reports, blackboard work, and the filling-in of 
outline maps. The summary takes the form of an oral recitation 
by one or more pupils or of an outline worked out by the class 
and teacher cooperatively, the main points being written on 
the board and copied in the pupils' notebooks. The aim of the 
summary is to emphasize the important points in the lesson 
of the day and at the same time to show the relation of this 
lesson to previous lessons. The advance assignment is usually 
in two parts, one consisting of a review topic and the other of 
an outline mainly >ased on the text. The teacher accompanies 
the giving out of ibe outline with a few words as to where the 



/ 



14 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

references may be found and what they contain, as well as an 
indication of the points of difficulty and of special emphasis. 
The summary very often leads up to and introduces the 
advanced assignment.^ 

The other example of management which has come to the 
writer's attention divides the period into the following six 
parts : preliminary questions, assignment of blackboard work, 
quiz questions, floor talks, explanation of blackboard work, and 
assignment of the new lesson. The time ordinarily devoted 
to each of these phases of the recitation in the order named is 
five, two, eight, fifteen, ten, and five minutes. The object of 
the preliminary questions is to focus the thoughts of the pupils 
at once on the lesson. Such questions as What impressed you 
most in the lesson? What was most significant? Anything 
you particularly enjoyed? are typical of the kind of prelimi- 
nary questions asked. The assignment of the blackboard work 
follows the preliminary questions. Ten or twelve pupils are 
asked to place on the board (from memory) maps, graphs, out- 
lines, diagrams, and lists of names which have been assigned the 
previous day. While these ten or twelve pupils are at the board 
the attention of the remainder of the class is occupied with quiz 
questions asked by the pupils themselves. Sometimes one pupil 
is selected to answer all questions propounded, his place being 
taken by a volunteer if he fails quickly. At other times 
the class is divided into two sections, one section quizzing the 
other. In fact, all sorts of devices are employed to secure 
variety and to sustain interest. When all or nearly all of the 
pupils at the board have finished their work, the class gives its 
attention to a single speaker in what is called a floor talk. In 
this talk the pupil faces the audience and speaks without notes, 
the aim being to set forth in a straightforward, concise manner 
his knowledge of the subject under consideration. After he has 
finished, the teacher calls for criticisms and makes them him- 
self, both adverse and favorable e •; Licsing the recitation 

^ Used by A. F. Barnard, of The T m'versity of Chicago High School. 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 15 

the teacher gives the pupils who were sent to the blackboard at 
the beginning of the hour an opportunity to explain what they 
have done. Just enough attention is given to this phase of the 
work to make those doing it feel that their work has been ob- 
served and checked. The last five minutes of the period are 
devoted to the assignment of the new lesson. This seems to 
be enough time because the work is planned with such care. 
To guide him each student is presented with a card containing 
the study plan for the history lesson.^ 

Whether or not one agrees in toto with the two foregoing 
programs of history-recitation management, one must accept as 
feasible the idea back of them. Of course, not every day's work 
of necessity falls into the four divisions mentioned in the first 
example or the six mentioned in the second ; this would grow 
monotonous. Nevertheless pupils enjoy doing the same kind 
of work for several days in succession. They learn what is ex- 
pected of them and enjoy living up to these expectations. 

Of the constant elements in good recitation management, the 
assignment of the new lesson is of supreme importance, for 
upon it and its accomplishment rests the success or failure of 
the entire recitation period. It is certainly not putting the case 
too strongly to say that one of the most important things done 
by a teacher in any given history recitation is the assignment 
of the work upon which the next one is to be based. Just 
when and how an assignment should be made and the amount 
of time that should be devoted to it are matters that the teacher 
must settle for himself. It is in all probability safe to assume 
that few history teachers spend too much time in assigning the 
lesson ; and that fewer still make the assignment too definite, 
especially for immature pupils. 

Considerable time and a rich store of schemes are required 
to make all history assignments sufficiently specific, clearly 

^ For a full description of this plan by its originator see " A Lesson in 
Histor)-," Ohio History Teacher's Journal (November, 1916), pp. no ff. 
The card is reproduced on page 39 of the following chapter. 



1 6 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

comprehensive, and adequately appealing. The following is a 
list of specific things which a history teacher might do in assign- 
ing a lesson (the explicit thing will, of course, always be deter- 
mined by the ability and advancement of the class): (i) call 
attention to the most important points in the advanced lesson ; 
(2) outline the lesson for the pupils ; (3) explain difficult parts 
of the new lesson; (4) give a list of leading questions; (5) show 
pupils how to make their own outlines; (6) suggest definite 
references, pictures, and maps for study ; ( 7 ) develop the out- 
line of the advanced lesson with the aid of the class ; (8) place 
the difficult words on the blackboard and pronounce them ; 
(9) read the advanced lesson over with the pupils, noting the 
large topics and asking them to prepare the new lesson ac- 
cording to the outline thus made; (10) simply outline enough 
of the lesson to show the pupils how to study it, and leave the 
remainder for them to do ; (11) assign by topics with little 
discussion or explanation ; and (12) give a list of topics with 
general references and citations to special references, indicating 
at the same time the relative importance of the topics. It is 
often desirable with beginners in high-school history to read 
the lesson over with them one day and ask them to recite upon 
it the following day. Good general rules to follow in making 
the assignment are : set definite tasks to be performed ; give 
specific instructions as to what to learn as well as to where to 
find material and how to master it ; and never feel that the 
assignment is effectively made until each pupil clearly under- 
stands just what work is to be done in preparation for the 
succeeding period. 



dm^ petio( 



Forms or Types 



Junior and senior high-school history recitations may legiti- 
mately assume a number of forms or types, the chief ones 
being (i) a combination of the recitation and the lecture 
method with the emphasis on reciting by the pupils; (2) a 
'combination of the recitation and lecture method with the 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 17 

emphasis on the part taken by the teacher; (3) the topical 
recitation; (4) the study recitation ; (5) the textbook recita- 
tion; (6) the review and drill recitation; (7) the test recita- 
tion; (8) the individual recitation; and (9) the socialized 
recitation. If a teacher desires to develop a subject inductively, 
he will make much use of the first mentioned of these forms. 
He will question the class sharply on the assigned material 
which relates to the subject under consideration. When neces- 
sary he will amplify with extra material in the form of a brief 
lecture or explanation, such work on his own part being con- 
necting links in the development of the lesson. There will be 
no digression or lack of continuity in the work. The line of 
cajise- and effect will hold things together. Coherence will be 
mu^b in evidence. 

When the teacher desires to cover a subject not fully treated 
in the textbook he may use a combination of the recitation and 
the lecture method, placing the emphasis on the latter. In using 
this form of recitation the textbook material will not receive 
much attention. The teacher will do most of the talking, 
making a liberal use of illustrative material to render his 
presentation clear and concrete. Questions will be asked now 
and then to make sure that the pupils are following. When 
this form is used day after day and for all kinds of work it 
becomes the lecture method pure and simple. 

The topical and the textbook recitation may at times be 
identical. For example, if the work on the French and Indian 
Wars is taken up in the recitation period topic by topic as 
presented in the text, there would be no distinction in the two 
forms. The recitation in this case would be carried on by a 
mere announcement of the topic by the teacher and a presenta- 
tion of what the text contains by some pupil. This procedure 
would continue until all the topics the text contains on the 
subject were covered. While the two forms are identical when 
thought of in this connection there is, however, a use of each 
where this identity is not present. In using what is known as 



1 8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

the topical method in teaching history some teachers assign 
each member of the class a topic. The recitation takes the 
form of special reports on these assigned topics, one topical 
report after another being given. Another use of this form of 
recitation is when the teacher outlines somewhat independently 
of the text the work on the tariff, slavery, or like topics. The 
recitation in this case is carried on by the members of the class 
discussing each topic in the assignment when it is announced 
by the teacher. Each member of the group will know some- 
thing about each topic. This fact makes the topical recitation 
in this form better adapted to high-school pupils than in- 
dividually assigned topics. 

The textbook recitation may take the form of pure rote 
work. Originally it was chiefly this, the words of the author 
being repeated verbatim by the student when reciting. It may 
also take the other extreme, namely, reciting with the text open 
where little is required either of the teacher or of the pupils. 
When used in either of these two ways the textbook recitation 
has little in its favor. If, however, the substance rather than 
the exact words of the author is mastered by the pupils and 
reported during the recitation, and if the open book is used for 
reference and to teach how to study, this form of the history 
recitation becomes one which no teacher would care to neglect 
entirely. 

The study recitation is much like a laboratory exercise. In 
it the pupils work with books open, write reports, draw pictures, 
make maps and charts, read references, and do other things 
characteristic of the laboratory method. The recent supervised- 
study movement has done much to bring this form of reci- 
tation to the foreground. When regular supervised-study 
periods are not provided, the teacher can profitably use some 
of the recitation time to teach the fundamentals of study 
and their application to history. 

The review and drill recitation and the test recitation may be 
disposed of in one paragraph. While it may be desirable and 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 19 

necessary to do a little reviewing, drilling, and testing in each 
recitation there are times when one can legitimately devote an 
entire period to any one of these types of work. Care should be 
taken, however, in the matter of testing, lest the teacher fall 
into the habit of doing that and nothing more. When a teacher 
merely reconstructs bit by bit the story the text gives, leaves 
the information in a piecemeal form, asks a superabundance of 
memory questions, and gives no additional information, he does 
not rise above the level of a mere tester of assigned work, 
something the parent could in all probability do as well. If a 
teacher has assigned a certain amount of work to the whole 
class, he may occasionally need an entire period to test it 
thoroughly. There will also be times when he will need to spend 
one or more periods in review and in drill. The only thing 
that seems to need emphasizing in connection with these ac- 
tivities is that each is essential to good teaching and deserves 
the best thought of the teacher in preparing to conduct recita- 
tions in which either of them plays the chief role.^ 

The individual recitation is what the name suggests. It 
demands a large expenditure of the time and energy of the 
teacher. It can be used most effectively to test uniform 
requirements. For example, in teaching the Crusades, the 
Reformation, the French Revolution, tlie American Revolution, 
the Civil War, and similar topics, it can be understood in the 
beginning that each member of the class will be required to 
formulate in his own words a connected discussion of the sub- 
ject in question and to recite it to the satisfaction of the 
instructor. On completing, for example, the study of the 
Civil War, the teacher could tell the story to the class or 
develop it as a class exercise. Individual recitation would 
then become the order of the day for a number of periods, 
the class as a whole being set to work on some advanced 

^ For two discussions of the forms of the history recitation see Walter 
Libby, " Forms of High-School Recitation," Education, XXVIII, 601 ff., 
and Frances Morehouse, " Forms of the History Recitation," History 
Teacher's Magazine, VII, 337. 



20 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

problem. While this form of the history recitation can 
easily become a testing exercise and nothing more, it need 
not necessarily remain on this level. 

The socialized recitation is one in which the outward re- 
sponsibility for conducting and managing the recitation activi- 
ties rests with the class, and not with the teacher as in the case 
with the majority of the forms described above. In a strictly 
socialized recitation conversations and discussions are trans- 
ferred to the class circle, the teacher being a unit as each pupil 
is. Discussions, questions, and criticisms are between pupils, 
with the teacher occasionally drawn in, rather than always be- 
tween the teacher and some member of the class. The direction 
of expression is also wholly in charge of the pupils, thus forc- 
ing them to project a sequence of topics around* which their 
own contributions are to center. 

A description of the procedure in teaching the tariff by means 
of the socialized recitation would run as follows : Let the class 
turn itself into a legislative body. For practical purposes it 
could represent the Senate and House of Representatives com- 
bined. Each member under this arrangement would be as- 
signed a certain number of states to represent and have as 
many votes as the states he represents. After these prelim- 
inaries are out of the way and the proper officers have been 
chosen, a ways and means committee can be appointed. Before 
this committee can do any definite work the class should make 
a limited list of the items to appear in the tariff bill which is to 
result from this work. Forty or fifty items will be all a class 
can manage successfully. To aid in the selection of these items 
a copy of the tariff schedule in force at the date of the contem- 
plated bill should be at hand. Each member of the class 
should be provided with a list qfj;he proposed items as well 
as the duty on them in the law once in force. While the 
ways and means committee is working on a bill to present, the 
other members of the group can be thoroughly acquainting 
themselves with the industrial life and interests of the states 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 21 

they represent. While doing this each one can tentatively make 
out a schedule on each item in the proposed list which he thinks 
the states in his group would have actually favored at the 
time of the proposed bill. In due time the ways and 
means committee will be ready to report ; a copy of the 
report should be placed in the hands of each member 
of the class. In presenting this report as many of the mem- 
bers of the committee as care to do so should be permitted to 
speak, after which speeches will be in order from all those not 
members of the committee. A good plan is to have it understood 
in the beginning that each member of the group is to make a 
speech in which the interests of his group of states will be 
presented. At the proper time the vote can be taken. If at 
all possible the bill should be passed. This will require some 
caucusing, no doubt, and it may also require some changes in 
the original bill. In spite of these extra labors, however, the bill 
in some form should be passed, even if it is a tariff of 
" abominations," as some have been in the history of our country. 
It should be said in concluding this section that the form 
each recitation or a series of recitations is to take should be a 
matter of considerable concern to the teacher, since it often de- 
termines in advance such problems as teacher-pupil activity, 
the number and kind of questions, the quantity and use to be 
made of supplementary material, the ways of securing unity, 
proportion, and coherence, and the operation of the factors in 
good recitation management. For example, if the teacher de- 
liberately plans to consume most of the time himself, he will use 
a combination of the recitation and oral form with the emphasis 
on the latter ; on the other hand, if he plans to have the pupils 
consume all or nearly all of the time, he will use either the 
individual or the socialized recitation. In other words, the thing 
to be done will determine the form of the recitation, which in 
turn will dictate the method of procedure to be used in ac- 
complishing the end sought. A practical thing for the teacher 
to do is to specialize on two or three forms and then use the 



22 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

others to accomplish special kinds of projects. To this latter 
service the individual, the study, the test recitations, and the 
combination of the recitation and the oral method with the 
emphasis on the oral are well adapted ; for regular day -by-day 
use the socialized form and a combination of the recitation and 
oral method'-'with the emphasis on the recitation can be em- 
ployed with worth-while results. 

\| V The History Question 

There" are three things connected with the question as a 

means of attaining efficiency in high-school history instruction 

/to which the teacher should continuously give his attention. 

\These are the quality, the number, and the kind of questions 

^ he is daily using. X^ertain essential qualities of good history 

A questions should always be uppermost when a teacher is formu- 

' lating them. If a history question stimulates reflection, is 

adapted to the pupils' experience, and calls forth a well-rounded 

thought clearly and logically expressed, it has some elements of 

superior quality. In order to make sure that his questions will 

contain these desirable characteristics, a history teacher should 

embody in his plan for the day six or eight thought-provoking 

questions, calling for discrimination and association, based on 

facts found in the lesson. 

Just how many questions one should ask during a forty or 
forty-five minute history recitation is a matter which defies an 
arbitrary answer. As hinted above, the form of the recitation 
is one of the chief determining factors here. An inductive type 
will certainly demand many more questions on the part of the 
teacher than the socialized. Judging from the investigations 
that have been made of the questioning activity of history 
teachers, it seems safe to say that most of them either are asking 
too many questions or are using one form of the history recita- 
tion to excess. For example, one investigator, in gathering 
material for a study of the question, visited some twenty 
history recitations and actually counted the questions asked 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 



23 



during a forty minute period. It was found that the number 
of questions propounded by the teacher varied from 41 to 142, 
the actual figures for the twenty periods being 41, 47, 53, 60, 
61, 61, 64, 66, 68, 76, 80, 88, 90, 90, 93, 94, 97, 125, 128, 
142/ Another study of a similar nature which investigated 
ten recitations of each of two history teachers found the facts 
exhibited in Table I. 



TABLE I. THE QUESTIONING ACTIVITY OF TWO HIGH- 
SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHERS 2 



First Teacher 


Second Teacher 


Qnestion^i 








Minutes 


Question 


s 






Minutes 


93 




in 




25 




88 




in 




26 


54 




in 




32 




142 




m 




44 


95 




m 




23 




116 




m 




35 


120 




m 




25 




100 




m 




26 


52 




in 




17 




75 




in 




32 


139 




in 




27 




79 




m 




30 


no 




m 




45 




119 




in 




34 


70 




m 




30 




117 




in 




28 


36 




in 




20 




97 




m 




24 


145 




in 




40 




65 




in 




26 


914 




in 




2S4 




998 




in 




305 


Average 


per 


minute, 


y- 


,2 


Average 


per 


minute, 


3-2 








Few teachers will dissent from the opinion that in the major- 
ity of the twenty history recitations represented in Table I too 
many questions were asked, unless one grants that almost all of 
them were of a type demanding many questions. Be this as it 
may, the practical thing for the history teacher to do in facing 
these startling findings is rigidly to guard his own questioning 
activity and see that the number of questions he asks has some 
direct relation to the form of the history recitation he is using, 

1 Romiett Stevens, The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruc- 
tion, p. II. 

^ E. E. Lewis, "The Questioning Activity of High-School Teachers," 
Midland Schools (February, 1916), p. 173. 



24 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

If attention is directed to the kind of questions asked by the 
history teachers represented in Table I, one learns why they 
asked so many. In eleven history recitations visited by two 
investigators^ the following facts were revealed : 



Number of the recitation 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


Total number of questions 


41 


66 


90 


94 


125 


142 
103 


85 
8S 


82 

70 


82 
1^ 


68 
'60" 


87 


Number of memory questions 


29 


60 


75 


74 


87 


72 



The fact that one of these investigators found that the num- 
ber of memory questions was considerably higher in recitations 
in history than in most other subjects led her to remark that 
no other subject in the curriculum adheres to the textbook so 
closely for content, organization, and method as history ; and 
that no pther subject confines itself so steadfastly to facts.^ 



Teacher-Pupil Activity 



The proper distribution of the time of the history-recitation 
period between the teacher and the pupils is yet among the 
many unstandardized phases of high-school history teaching. 
The determining factor in this problem, as with the number of ' 
questions, is found in the form of the recitation. If the class 
period is devoted to a lecture by the teacher, he will necessarily 
consume most of the time ; if the socialized recitation, as de- 
scribed above, is employed, the teacher will remain in the back- 
ground, consuming little or no time. Since these are types at 
each end of the scale, it remains to be determined what the 
legitimate proportion in an ordinarily conducted history 
recitation should be. 

A partial answer to the question at issue may be found in 
present practices. How much of the time of a history recitation 
are teachers actually using, and how much are they permitting 

^ Stevens, op. cit. p. 47 ; L. E.Taft, " The Recitation as a Factor in produc- 
ing Social Efficiency," Educatio7t, XXXIV, 147. ^ Stevens, op. cit. p, 48. 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 



25 



their pupils to consume? Few attempts have been made to 
answer these queries. Two of the studies to which reference 
has already been made contain some material along this line. 
Measuring by the number of spoken words determined by 
stenographic reports of eleven history recitations, the following 
percentages of teacher-pupil activity were established:^ 



Number of recitation 


1 


2 

58 

42 


3 

59 
41 


4 

75 
25 


5 

62 
38 


6 

58 
42 


7 
67 
33 


8 

49 
51 


9 

54 
46 


10 

62 
38 


11 


Teacher-activity 


80 


58 


Pupil-activity 


20 


42 



The interesting fact about the history recitations represented 
in these studies is that in but one case was the pupil-activity 
greater than the teacher-activity — the average for the eleven 
recitations being 62 per cent for teacher and 38 per cent for 
pupil. In minutes these percentages equal 24.8 and 15.2. With 
thirty in a class, which is not uncommon, it will be seen that 
each pupil would get half a. minute out of a total of forty. If 
the teacher could be sure that the pupils' minds were actually 
active during all the 24.8 minutes he is talking, there would be 
some justification for his using nearly two thirds of the entire 
time. Adequate tests have not yet been devised to determine 
this matter. In the meantime it would seem safe for the 
teacher to give the pupils as mUch of the recitation time as 
consistency, common sense, and the form of recitation demand. 



Suggestions and Directions for conducting a 
History Recitation 

The writer has found from experience in directing practice 
teaching in high-school history that it is necessary to furnish 
the pupil-teacher with rather specific directions concerning the / 
planning, the conducting, and the managing of a recitation.^ 
The following is a copy of some suggestions and directions for 

1 Stevens, op. cit. p. 22 ; Taft, op. cit. p. 147. 



26 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

conducting a recitation in high-school history that has been 
used in this connection with gratifying results: 

I. Form of the recitation. 

1. History recitations may assume various forms. Determine 

in advance the form you are to use and make your 
plans accordingly. 

2. The form of the recitation will determine the amount of 

time you yourself will consume. Keep this in mind and 
do not rob the pupils of time legitimately theirs. 
II. Review of the previous lesson. 

1. Determine just what points in the previous lesson or lessons 

you wish to review. Indicate these under method of 
procedure in your lesson plan. 

2. Have in mind just how much time you intend to give to 

the previous lesson or lessons, to the new lesson, and 
to the assignment of next day's lesson. Make a prac- 
tice of adhering to this schedule rather rigidly. 
III. The new lesson. 

1. Determine how it is to be introduced. Keep in mind its 

relation to the previous lesson or lessons. 

2. Type of question : Attempt to keep a reasonable proportion 

of thought and memory questions. Avoid too many 
direct questions. Guard yourself against the use of 
y double or triple questions, or a cumbersome wording of 
ordinary questions. Better write out six or eight leading 
questions in advance. Let them appear under method of 
procedure in your lesson plan. 

3. The amount of talking and explaining done by the teacher 

will usually be small in comparison with that done by 
the pupils. 

4. Each lesson will ordinarily have a leading problem. Pupils 

should have the main problem clearly in mind in order 
that they may the more easily grasp the big points de- 
veloped during the recitation period. 

5. A summary at the close of each lesson as well as at the 

conclusion of a series of lessons is usually worth while. 
Keep these in mind. 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 27 

IV. Assignment of the next day's work. 

1. Specific directions will always be given for the study of the 

new lesson. Often some directions will need to be given 
for the review of the previous lesson or lessons. 

2. Allow yourself ample time for this phase of the work. Be 

sure that the pupils understand what is demanded of 
them, and later see that they come up to this demand 
according to the best of their ability. 

3. Collateral reading should be carefully assigned. Assign- 

ments of special topics may be either given in class or 
placed on slips and passed out to individual pupils. 
V. General management. 

1. Maps, diagrams, pictures, and other illustrative materials 

should be in constant use. The ones for the day's lesson 
must be arranged before the recitation begins. 

2. Attention and interest must be kept up. A sign of both is 

voluntary discussions, questions, and objections. When 
these are lacking, the cause must be sought, and some 
remedy applied. 

3. Dull, diffident, or unprepared members of the class must 

not be neglected. Special methods may need to be de- 
. vised for these. 

4. Seek to apply the principles of unity, proportion, and co- 

herence. Aim to make your teaching clear, forceful, and 
adapted to the pupils. Surround yourself with all the 
conditions under your control necessary to a good recita- 
tion in history. Stick to your controlling aim. Keep 
the pupils well informed as to the work to be done, the 
standards to be reached, the methods to be employed, 
and the materials to be used. 

Directions for observing and Standards for judging 
Prospective history teachers, in training, are often required to 
visit individually or collectively a number of well-taught history 
recitations. To send these would-be teachers to visit without 
definite directions concerning what to observe and note, and 
before giving them any standards by which to measure 
good history teaching, is in most cases a waste of valuable 



2 8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

time. Hence it follows that, if results proportionate to the 
time spent in observation work are to be attained, some very 
specific instructions, directions, and standards must be given 
the observers. The writer has used with seemingly good 
results three methods of obtaining concreteness and definiteness 
in directing the observation work of classes in the teaching 
of history. 

In the first place, after spending considerable time with a 
class in discussing the various phases of a history recitation, 
/such as principles governing, fundamental qualities, controlling 
aim, conditions necessary, etc., the work in observation is begun. 
Each member of the group observing is asked to make as full 
notes as possible on the recitation observed. On the basis of 
these notes the recitation as a whole is discussed at the next 
meeting of the class. It often happens that three successive 
observations are made in order to get a more comprehensive 
view of the work of the demonstration teacher. By such a 
method of procedure it is quite easy for students to formulate 
concrete and definite reports. They can talk about principles, 
qualities, teacher-pupil activity, and the history question as 
exemplified in the recitation or recitations observed, and back 
up what they say with explicit examples. 

After teachers in training have learned to observe the recita- 
tion as a whole, specialization can profitably be employed. The 
class is now divided into groups. One group is asked to 
specialize on the question, another on management, another 
on principles and qualities, and so on, until all phases of the 
recitation are covered. Each group is asked to visit not less 
than four consecutive recitations on which to base conclusions 
relative to the phase or phases under observation. This method 
secures even more definite results than the one described in the 
preceding paragraph. 

Now, after the class has had some training in the use of the 
two methods already described and if the teacher wishes to see 
how effectively this knowledge can be used, he will have the 



THE HISTORY RECITATION 



29 



class as a whole visit the same recitation and judge it by means 
of the following score card or some similar scheme. 



A HISTORY-RECITATION SCORE CARD 



Items 

I. Principles governing 

1. Unity 

2. Proportion 

3. Coherence 

II. Fundamental qualities' 

1. Clearness , 

2. Force 

3. Adaptation ..r-.. 

III. Conditions necessary 

1. Freedom from distractions ^ 

2. Preparation of teacher and pupils 

3. Equipment 

IV. Management 

1. Assignment of the new lesson 

2. The review . 

3. The new lesson 

4. The summary 

5. Technic of management 

V. Form, questions, teacher-pupil activity 

1. Adaptation of form to work in hand 

2. Adaptation of number and kind of questions to form 

3. Te:?ch'='--pupil activity 

4. Qua of questions 

Grade oi itation as a whole 



Score 



/ 



68 



In using laic score card each arabic-numbered item can be 
graded on the basis of 10. From this data the grade to be 
given to each of the five main items can be determined, and 
from these five grades the score of the recitation as a whole is 



30 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

made up. For instance, the grade of 68 per cent on the recita- 
tion as a whole in the foregoing example was attained as fol- 
lows : When judged as to unity the recitations seemed to be 
worth 7, using lo as a basis; on proportion and coherence, 
5 and 6 respectively. The sum of these grades divided by 3 
gives the grade (6) on I (Principles governing). The remain- 
ing items were similarly treated. The sum of the grades on the 
five main items is found to be 34. This number divided by 5 
and multiplied by 10 gives the grade 68. Such a scheme is 
very easily manipulated, as there is no dealing in large numbers. 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Betts, G. H. The Recitation. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1910. 

Clark, Lotta. "A Good Way to teach History," School Review, XVII 
(1909), 2ssff. 

Cribbs, G, a. "Methods of attaining and testing Efficiency in History 
Instruction," History Teacher's Magazine, VI (1915), 241 ff. 

Hartwell, E. C. "The Method of the Recitation," Part IV in The 
Teaching of History. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913. 

LiBBY, Walter. " Forms of High-School Recitation," Education, XXVIII 
(1908), 601 ff. 

Morehouse, Frances. "Forms of the History Recitation," History 
Teacher's Magazine, VII (1916), 332 ff. 

Stevens, Romiett. The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruc- 
tion. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1912. 

Taft, L. E. " The Recitation as a Factor in producing Social Efficiency," 
Education, XXXIV (1913), 14S ff. 

Trenholme, N. M. "The Organization of the Recitation," History 
Teacher's Magazine, I (1909), 74 ff. 

Williams, O. H. "Standards for judging History Instruction," History 
Teacher's Magazine, VI (1915), 235 ff. 

WoLESON, A. M. "The Efficiency of the History Recitation," Educa- 
tional Review, XLV (1913), 444 ff. 



CHAPTER II 

TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 

A history teacher once assigned a class the next five pages 
for the advanced lesson. The recitation on those pages the 
following day went very badly. In attempting to locate the 
cause of this poor work, it was revealed that a number of the 
pupils had read the assignment as many as five times. With 
this seeming care in preparation, however, these students were 
unable to participate in the recitation to the teacher's satisfac- 
tion. After a number of experiences of this same character he 
began to ask himself : " What is the trouble ? Do these boys 
and girls know how to study history ? Do I know as much 
about their study habits as I should? Are there any general 
rules for study that I can give them? Why can't I supervise 
them individually while they study ? " Attempts to answer 
questions like these have resulted in a considerable body of 
material of interest and value to the rank and file of history 
teachers. It is to a presentation of this material that this 
chapter is devoted. 

How High-School Pupils study History 

Very soon after a teacher takes charge of a new class in 
history he should set up the machinery necessary to acquaint 
himself with the study habits of each individual in the class. 
Answers to the following or a similar list of questions would 
furnish valuable information in this connection. 

1. How many times do you read your lesson? 

2. Do you look up in the dictionary new words which you do 
not understand? 

31 



32 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

3. Do you locate new towns or countries on the maps ? 

4. Do you turn to the pronouncing vocabulary for the pronun- 
ciation of capital names? 

5. Do you ask yourself questions on the lesson and try to 
answer them? 

6. Do you close your book and recite to yourself the story of 
the lesson? 

7. Do you ever make a list of the paragraph topics in the 
lesson and recite them to yourself? 

8. Do you take notes on the lesson unless you are required to? 

9. Do you use other books in addition to your text unless 
required to? 

10. Do you read the footnotes? 

11. When you are referred to some point previously mentioned 
do you turn back and hunt it up? 

12. Do you underscore important words or sentences in your 
book? 

13. Do you ever compare or contrast two men or two events 
unless asked to? 

14. Do you try to remember important events by remembering 
dates? 

15. Do you, as a rule, read the lesson once through before 
attempting to get the details ? 

After the history teacher has secured the information which 
the answers to the preceding fifteen questions would give him, 
it will be worth his while to look into the matter of methods of 
studying history as reported by high-school pupils in schools 
other than his own. One of the first studies along this line in 
which history was included was conducted by N. C. Johnson, 
in 1899. Among the things of interest to history teachers in 
this inquiry is a tabulation of the methods used by pupils 
in studying history. Standing first in this list is '^ repeated 
readings." Other methods in the order of their most fre- 
quent occurrence are : selecting important topics, reflecting 
upon the lesson, reciting to one's self, reciting to other pupils, 
imaging place and events, making a map, writing down the 
lesson, reading and reflecting on each sentence, remembering 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 33 

one event by another that occurred at the same time or is 
otherwise more or less closely related to it.^ 

A more recent investigation along this same line is the one 
made by G. E. Rickard when he was teaching high -school his- 
tory in Oakland City, Indiana. In Table II are found the 
methods of studying history which Rickard discovered and 
the percentage of the students using each. 



TABLE II. HOW HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS STUDY HISTORY 2 





Grade 


Hi 


GH-ScHOOL Sections 


Methods of Studying 
















7th 


8th 


I 


2 


3 


4 




Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


I. Read once 


91 


86 


86 


72 


87 


60 


2. Use discrimination . . 


— 


— 


43 


55 


35 


40 


3. Use maps 


71 


14 


21 


— 


— 




4. Use additional references 


20 


55 


65 


II 


23 


24 


5. Re-read once or more . 


5 


45 


50 


28 


30 


24 


6. Prepare map 


— 


— 


65 


— 






7. Get sequence of topics . 


II 


41 


14 


— 


— 


12 


8. Find date 


— 


— 


28 










9. Underscore . 








— 


7 


— 


. , 




ID. Outline . . . 






3 




7 


28 


I '^ 




II. Jot down notes 






3 


II 


19 


4 
8 


12. Review . . . 






— 




— 


5 
28 






13. Learn dates . 








14. Study margins 






— ■ 


— 


— 


18 


— 




15. Write dates . 






— 


— 


— 


16 





4 
4 


16. Restudy by outline . . 


— 


— 


— 


24 


3 


17. Find unknown words 


74 


24 


— 


33 






18. Recall without book . . 


Zl 


17 


— 


28 


— 




19. Get general view . . . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


25 


16 


20. Topical recall .... 


— 


— 


— 


— 


25 


4 


21. Connect dates with events 


3 


3 


— 





12 


12 


22. Recite to a friend . . . 






— 





J 




23. Tell to self 


9 


10 


— 


— 


12 


33 
4 


24. Underscore important words 




— 


1_ 


— 


16 



1" Habits of Work and Methods of Study of High-School Pupils," 
School Review, VII, 270. 

^ Compiled from studies made by Rickard and reported in his Some 
Aspects of the Supervision of Study, p. 42, and School Review, XXII, 675. 



34 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

In the course of his investigations Rickard^ secured some 
interesting concrete point-by-point tabulations of what pupils 
actually do in preparing a history lesson. In answer to 
the request, "Describe point by point the different things 
you do in preparing your history lesson," a twelve-year-old 
pupil in Grade VII A wrote : 

1. Read the lesson over. 

2. Read about it in other books. 

3. Look up words I do not understand. 

4. Then I make outhne of paragraphs and look up each point. 

A second-year high-school student listed the different things 
which she did in preparing a history lesson as follows : 

1. I read each separate paragraph and get the main points. 

2. I discuss to myself freely the main points and their relation to 
other parts. 

3. I read it all over again to be sure I have not missed a single 
point. 

4. If I come to a word I don't understand, I look it up. 

5. I locate in the atlas every city and country mentioned. 

Another student replied : 

1. I put myself in the place of one of the characters in the lesson. 

2. I shut my eyes and think of it as a picture, one scene at a 
time. 

3. Sometimes in battles, I read the battle over, then draw a plan 
of the battle. 

4. I locate in the geography places mentioned. 

After the history teacher has finished the survey of the study- 
habits of the members of his own classes and made some inquiry 
how pupils in other schools get their history lessons, he is ready 
for the next step in teaching his pupils how to study. In all 
probability at this stage in the solution of his problem he will 
find himself confronted with a threefold task : ( i ) correcting 

"^ " High-School Students' Description of their Methods of Study," 
School Review, XXII, 676 f. 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 35 

undesirable study-habits ; ( 2 ) encouraging desirable ones ; and 
(3) offering concrete suggestions along new lines of attack. 
However, before the teacher can intelligently solve the out- 
standing problems relative to this stage of his work he will 
need to look into the psychological aspects of the general sub- 
ject of how to study and of teaching how to study. 



Psychology as an Aid to teaching how to 
STUDY History 

Since studying is largely a mental process, the history teacher 
will have to draw on his knowledge of a few of the most funda- 
mental principles of the subject of psychologj'^ in formulating 
a plan to follow in teaching his pupils how to study. He will, 
indeed, have to become a psychologist for the time being. For 
practical purposes and immediate use he will read with much 
care discussions of the psychological phases of study in gen- 
eral, such as the one by Judd in his Psychology of High-School 
Subjects,^ the one by Kitson in his How to use your Mind,^ 
and possibly Whipple's thirty-eight rules for study in his How 1 
to study Effectively . Not until a teacher has read and mastered 
the contents of such discussions as these will he be able to do 
effective work in teaching his pupils how to study history. But 
some one asks, ''What are the practical things for a history 
teacher in such discussions ? " The answer is simple. The help- 
seeking teacher of history will come out of a thoughtful reading 
of these and similar discussions with fixed convictions as to the 
paramount importance of the following factors in effective his- 
tory study: a rapid preliminary survey, concentration, the 
difference between reading and studying a book, the value and 
use of standards in studying, the value of a regular plan of f 
attack, selecting essentials, elaborating a theme, the value of 
frequent reviews, the advantages and disadvantages of long 

1 Chap, xvii, " Teaching Students how to Study." 

2 Chap, iv, " Formation of Study-Habits." 



36 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

and^hqrtjperiods of study, the use and abuse of an outline, and 
effective book-marking. Considerable time can profitably be 
spent with a class in discussing these phases of the problem of 
study as they relate to the field of history. Out of this discus- 
sion there should come a set of rules, formulated by the teacher 
with the cooperation of the class, subsequently to serve as a 
guide in studying history lessons. To aid the teacher in this 
matter the following suggestions relative to directions and rules 
for studying history are offered : 

Directions and Rules for studying History 

Some high-school principals provide general directions for 
studying. These are placed in the hands of teachers and 
pupils alike. When such is the case, the history teacher will 
need only to develop with his classes directions and rules which 
are especially applicable to the study of his subject. The fol- 
lowing are the general directions which Mr. F. M. Hammitt of 
the Mason City, Iowa, high school furnished the pupils when 
he was principal of the school in 191 5. It will be observed 
that they are both general and specific in character. The 
specific ones which tell how to get a lesson seem to have been 
prepared with the history lesson in mind. In fact, they might 
have been labeled ''To Get a History Lesson." 

HOW TO STUDY 

I. Have a regular time to study. Let nothing interfere with 
this time when it is once determined. This will be hard at first, 
but will soon become a habit, hence easy. 

II. Choose a place where you can study. This place must be 
one where you are comparatively free from interruptions. It need 
not be a place absolutely quiet, as usual noises soon cease to force 
themselves on your attention. 

III. Use your will power to hold yourself to the task in hand. 
You can't study one minute and then gaze out of the window a 
minute or think about other pupils, and accomplish much. 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 37 

TO GET A LESSON 

I. Get the topic or topics clearly in mind. In other words, find 
out where you are going, then go there and nowhere else. 

II. After you know what the subject is you are to study, get 
what the book gives as the main or principal thought. Then get 
the details. It is well to underline the principal sentence in a 
paragraph, but note that each paragraph has only one principal 
sentence. Too much underlining confuses. 

III. After you have thus studied one main division of the lesson, 
close the book and attempt to recite it to yourself, making notes 
if necessary. Then compare your recitation with the author's 
presentation. 

IV. Relate the details with the main topics. 

V. Talk over the lesson with others only after you have studied 
it. Repetition fixes things in your mind, so the oftener you think 
your lessons over, the better it will be for you. 

VI. Do not try to hold unrelated facts. Get a relationship for 
each fact. The more relationships you can get, the more securely 
will it be fastened in your mind. Your teachers will supplement 
these instructions. 

The teacher's right to adapt these rules to his needs is recog- 
nized in the last sentence, ''Your teachers will supplement 
these instructions." In the practical application of such a set 
of directions to his work in history, the teacher could make the 
expression "To Get a Lesson" read ''To Get a History Lesson." 
Then he would be at liberty to use the principal's suggestions 
along with those he and his class work out ; the students would 
gladly cooperate in putting into practice such a set of rules 
as would result from this method of procedure. 

Another school which regularly furnishes its pupils with 
general study helps is The University of Chicago High School. 
To supply each student with a set of these helps has been the 
custom of this school for a number of years. Inasmuch as the 
custom has been continued from year to year it seems to be 
successful. The character of these helps may be seen from the 
revised copy for the school year 19 19-1920, which follows: 



38 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

STUDY HELPS 

The habits of study formed in school are of greater importance 
than the subjects mastered. The following suggestions, if carefully 
followed, will help you make your mind an efificient tool. Your 
daily aim should be to learn your lesson in less time, or to learn it 
better in the same time. 

1. Form a time and place habit by studying the lesson in the 
same subject, in the same place, at the same time each day. Don't 
study immediately after a hearty meal. 

2. Have proper study conditions and equipment — a quiet room 
not too warm, good light at the left, a straight chair and table, the 
necessary books, tools, and materials. 

3. Study independently. Do your own work and use your own 
judgment, asking for help only when you cannot proceed without 
it, thus developing ability to think for yourself, and the will power 
and self-reHance essential to success. 

4. Arrange your tasks economically ; study those requiring 
fresh attention, like reading, first ; those in which concentration is 
easier, like written work, later. 

5. Sit straight and go at the work vigorously, with confidence 
and determination, without lounging or waste of time. When 
actually tired, exercise a moment, open the window, change to a 
different type of work. 

6. Be clear on the assignment and the form in which it is to be 
delivered. In class take notes when the assignment is made ; mark 
things to be carefully learned. When in doubt consult the teacher. 

7. In committing material to memory, learn it as a whole ; go 
over it quickly first, then more carefully, and then again and again 
until you have it. In learning forms, rules, vocabularies, etc. it will 
help to repeat them aloud. 

8. In studying material to be understood and digested but not 
memorized, first go over the whole quickly, then carefully section 
by section ; then, if possible, review the whole quickly. 

9. Use judgment as well as memory ; analyze paragraphs, 
select important points, note how minor ones are related to them ; 
use your pencil freely to mark important points so that you may 
learn systematically and review easily. 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 39 

10. Study an advance lesson promptly and review before going to 
class ; recall memorized matter by repeating it, aloud if necessary ; 
think through a series of points to see that you have them in order 
in your mind. 

11. Use all the material aids available — index, appendix, notes, 
vocabulary, maps, illustrations in your textbook, as well as other 
books and periodicals. 

These two examples of general directions and rules for study 
are sufficient to give the history teacher an idea of what is at 
his command, as well as to serve as an aid in formulating 
similar rules for his own subject, which seems never to have 
been done with any degree of satisfaction to Ijistory teachers, 
notwithstanding the fact that considerable effbrtiias been ex- 
pended in this direction. For example, Mr. Rickard came out 
of his experiments and investigation relative to teaching pupils 
to study history with the following set of directions : 

^^^IRECTIONS TO PUPILS FOR THE STUDY OF HISTORY 

I. Only a few of the most important dates will be assigned, but 
these should be connected with their proper event and learned as 
thoroughly as a multiplication table. 

<^ II. Write out and pronounce all proper names. Try to connect 
each name with some place and some event. 

III. Use map, dictionary, and additional references for every 
location and word you are not sure of. 

IV. Try to find the cause or causes of each event. 

V. In comparison and contrast set down likenesses and differ- 
ences, point by point, in parallel columns. 

VI. Ask yourself constantly what the most important events 
in your lesson are, and why. 

VII. Tell the story of your lesson to yourself in detail and in 
' order. Be sure to use any terms you have recently learned the 

meaning of. 

VIII. After reading each paragraph ask yourself, "How is this 
paragraph related to the chapter heading?" 

IX. Jot down a brief memorandum of the points of each lesson 
which you regard as especially important. 



40 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

A more definite and practical set of study helps than the 
foregoing is the one originated by Miss Elizabeth Thorndyke, 
of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio. At the beginning" 
of the year Miss Thorndyke presents each member of her his- 
tory classes with a little card which contains nine directions 
which are to be followed in preparing history lessons. Below is 
a copy of this card : ^ 

/ STUDY PLAN FOR THE HISTORY LESSON 

^^T First reading ; for pleasure and general idea. 

II. Second reading ; accompanied by the writing of a list of new 
names and memorizing of all new names, dates, and places. 

III. Practice rapid sketching of maps or diagrams in lesson. For 
blackboard reproduction. 

IV. Make a written outline of important topics and subtopics. 
For blackboard reproduction. 

V. Formulate three or four quiz questions. 

VI. Search for parallels and' contrasts. 

VII. Select the problem of the lesson. 

VIII. Construct graph illustrating main issues or problems. For 
blackboard reproduction. 

IX. Practice aloud making a floor talk, or oral summary of the 
lesson. 

Whatever adverse criticism one might make of the two pre- 
ceding sets of directions for studying history, one must admit 
that there is more good than bad in them. It would prob- 
ably be better to tell the overconscientious pupil to make a 
list of only those new names in the lesson which the teacher in- 
dicates from time to time and to memorize only such names, 
dates, and places as the teacher, in cooperation with the class, 
points out as worth remembering, than to put the direction as 
Miss Thorndyke has it. Furthermore, to tell pupils to use the 
map, dictionary, and additional references for every location 
and word they are not sure of, as Rickard does, would as a rule 

. 1 For details as to the use of the card see " A Lesson in History," 
Ohio History Teacher's Jotirnal (November, 191 6), p. 112. 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 41 

cause certain students to waste much valuable time. While it 
is desirable that history students acquire the habit of looking 
up things they do not know, it by no means follows that they 
should form this habit through the constant looking up of 
unimportant details. 

Can a set of general study helps in history be formulated 
which will avoid the pitfalls in the foregoing and at the same 
time preserve the good and supply the omissions ? The follow- • 
ing are offered as an attempt in this direction : 

HOW TO STUDY A HISTORY LESSON BASED ON 
A TEXTBOOK 

1. Make a rapid preliminary survey of the material in your text / 
on which the assignment is based. On concluding this survey you 
should have the main division of the lesson clearly in mind. 

2. Make a critical survey of the material in the text covering the 
first main division. This should result in a clear idea of the main 
topics in this division. 

3. Get the details the text contains on each main topic in the first 
division. Relate these to each main topic and to the subject of the 
main division. Close your book and recite what you now know 
concerning the first main division. 

4. Repeat 2 and 3 with each main division of the assignment. 

5. When collateral reading is assigned on a main division of the 
lesson, apply the same method of procedure in mastering it as you 
did in i, 2, and 3 above. You may need to outline this material. 

6. Repeat 5 in mastering the collateral reading assigned on each 
main division. 

7. Tell the story of the entire lesson to yourself in detail and in 
order. Make use of the information secured in your collateral 
reading, bringing it in where it belongs. 

8. Review the previous lesson. Relate the present one to it. Put 
the two lessons together in the form of a narrative if their relation 
is sufficiently close. 

One other thing should be said before concluding this section. 
It is this : Directions and rules for study are made to be used 



42 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

and not merely to be discussed by the teacher and class for 
a few days and then to be placed on the shelf of disuse. 
The responsibility in this matter rests largely with the teacher. 
In so far as possible he should conduct his daily work and make 
his assignments so that pupils will be led to follow the study 
directions. In no better way can rules and directions be trans- 
formed into daily habits of procedure on the part of the pupils, 
the end for which the teacher is always striving. 

Supervised Study in High-School History 

The discussion in this chapter so far has contained nothing 
on what of late has come to be known as supervised study. 
The history teacher need not be surprised if he is called upon 
to conduct supervised study. To do such work effectively seems 
more difficult in history than in some other studies. For 
example, to supervise individual students while they are silently 
studying their history lesson at their seats is much more diffi- 
cult than supervising students while they study algebra, Latin, 
grammar, or geometry. Unless the history student is making 
an illustration, a map, or an outline, or doing some other form 
of expression work, the teacher cannot always tell what progress 
he is making and where his difficulties are. 

Since supervised study aims to reach the individual student 
in a way that traditional class study cannot do, it will be neces- 
sary for the history teacher to develop a special techiftc for 
the work before undertaking it. To date, there has been but 
little done to aid him in this matter. Mr. Rickard, who has 
been mentioned in another connection, made a small beginning 
in developing a technic for supervising the study of history. 
A reorganization at the beginning of a new semester prevented 
him from carrying his plan far enough to determine-its efficacy. 
Briefly his technic, as it related to supervision, was as follows : 

First, definite aims or ends to be reached by history teaching 
were set up. These were : 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 43 

1. To develop the pupil's ability to answer questions based on : 

a. Acquisition of the proper concept of new and technical terms. 

b. Mastery of the subject matter. 

c. Interpretation of source material. 

d. Abstracting collateral reading and connecting it with the 

outline of the text. 

2. To develop the pupil's ability to act by : 

a. Arranging logical outHnes and abstracts of the subject matter 

of the text. 

b. Arranging tabulations of time sequences of events and persons, 

grouped according to some convenient unit, as decades or 
centuries. 

c. Drawing maps which shall more or less closely approximate 

some ideal which the instructor has previously analyzed 
into its elements. 

d. Collecting material on a given topic, organizing it logically, 

citing references, and preparing bibliographies. 

In the second place Mr. Rickard determined upon a definite 
method of procedure both for the teacher and for the pupils. 
In outline this method was : 

I. On the part of the instructor : 

a. A ten-minute examination at the beginning of each day's recita- 

tion on questions chosen at random from the previous day's 
supervised study. (Not essential to the plan ; given for 
purposes of comparison.) 

b. A definite assignment (which should usually take the form of 

questions) involving one or more of the above aims. 
(Time, 5 minutes near the beginning of the period, the 
remaining time to be spent as follows.) " 

c. Assisting the individual pupil by the aid of reference books or 

questions to get proper concepts of the new and technical 
terms in the assignment just made. 

d. Reading with the individual pupil the text, source, or col- 

lateral reading, and pointing out to him the answers to the 
questions in the assignment just made. 

e. Assisting the pupil definitely to arrange the outlines, tabula- 

tions, or maps of the assignment just made by pointing 



44 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

out to him the elements in his task to be striven for, and 
criticizing constructively his work. 
/. Giving to each pupil an approximately equal amount of time. 
2. On the part of the pupil : 

a. Writing the ten-minute examination set by the instructor. 

b. Making a memorandum of the assignment. (Time, 5 minutes. 

The following to occupy the remainder of the period.) 

c. Study with the teacher as per above. 

d. Independent work with pen, books, and paper on the assign- 

ment just made, when he is not being assisted by the 
teacher.! 

The first thing for a teacher to do in undertaking the direc- 
tion of individual pupils while studying their history lesson is 
to outline the supervised-study technic which he expects to 
use. He will find no ready-made outline which will meet all 
of his needs. The one given above contains valuable sugges- 
tions. By making use of it and the following more elaborate 
one an ambitious teacher should be able to formulate a usable 
technic of supervised study in history. 



THE TECHNIC OF SUPERVISED STUDY IN HISTORY 

Prehminary work on the part of the teacher. 

1. Planning the course in which supervised study is to be done 

in considerable detail before the work begins. This 
means that the teacher should know the six or eight main 
divisions of the field, the time to be given to each 
division, the maps to be made, the personages to be 
known and identified, and the dates and events to be 
remembered. 

2. Dividing each of the main divisions into lesson units in so 

far as possible. This means much work, but it must be 
done if definiteness is to be a characteristic of the work. 

3. In connection with each lesson unit, determining upon the 

types of written work to be done, references to be read, 
diagrams to be made, maps to be filled in, reports to be 

1 Rickard, Sofne Aspects of the Supetvisio^t of Study, pp. 3 £f. 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 45 

given, comparisons to be worked out, problems to be 
solved, and illustrations to be used. 

4. Formulating in cooperation with the class a set of directions 

and rules for effective history study. In doing this, 
much use of the general directions for study given to the 
student body should be made, providing such directions 
are supplied. 

5. .In so far as it is in his power, seeing that the study room 

is well equipped with reading-tables, reference books, 
maps, charts, diagrams, pictures, and other equipment 
necessary for effective study in history. A history teacher 
must be as zealous concerning the necessary equipment 
of his laboratory as the physics, chemistry, and science 
teachers are concerning theirs. 
II. The teacher's work when supervised study is under way. 

1. Making clear to each student the work to be done, the 

standard to be reached, and the material to be used in 
connection with each lesson unit. 

2. Keeping the directions for history study constantly before 

the class, making particular appHcations to the work. 
in hand, and discussing with the class special features 
of methods of study particularly apphcable to certain 
topics and lesson units. 

3. Inspecting the work of each student to determine : 
a. Progress he is making, 

h. Difficulties he is encountering^ 

c. Method of study he is using, 

d. Material he is reading. 

e. Results he is accomplishing. 
/. Effort he is putting forth. 

g. Errors he is committing. 

4. Giving specific aid to each pupil in the form of : 

a. Checking mistakes and correcting erroneous methods. 

b. Suggesting additional devices, methods, and references. 

c. Stimulating initiative in the fiUing in of outline maps, and 

the making of diagrams and graphs. 

d. Guiding in the making of outlines, summaries, and 

synopses. 



46 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

e. Pointing out mistakes in content, form, punctuation, etc., 

in written work. 
/. Encouraging the constant use of maps, charts, pictures, and 

similar equipment in the preparation of a lesson unit. 
g. Hearing individual recitations on phases of the work 

adapted to such a procedure. 
III. The work of the student when supervised study is under way. 

1. Reading the text and reference books. 

2. Memorizing material specifically designated as worth 

remembering. 

3. Filling in outhne maps, making diagrams and graphs, or- 

ganizing his ideas, outlining the text and reference ma- 
terial, writing exercises in the form of summaries, stories, 
short themes, and synopses, and revising work demanding 
revision. 

4. Applying the directions and rules for studying history formu- 

lated for his class. 

Other things not included in this outline will occur to the 
wide-awake teacher as the supervised-study work proceeds from 
day to day. No single outline can give all that any particular 
teacher and class will do. In fact, a stereotyped plan at this 
stage of the supervised-study-in-history movement might do 
more harm than good. Circumstances ofttimes control one's 
method of procedure in doing any piece of work. Be this as it 
may, teachers are often helped by knowing how others would 
do a particular piece of work. It is with this idea in mind that 
the two outlines of procedure in supervised history study are 
presented. The second one is proposed with the idea that the 
teacher will have a definite amount of time each day to devote 
to supervising the individual members of his classes while they 
are preparing their work. The exact amount of time that he 
will have for this work is a matter not usually within his control. 
This is an administrative problem which is predetermined by 
the general plan for supervised study used in the school. If the 
double-period plan, the divided-period plan, or the study-coach 
plan is in use, the scheme outlined above can be used with 



TEACHING PUPILS TO STUDY HISTORY 47 

certain modifications to fit local conditions ; on the other hand, 
if either the general study-hall plan, the weekly supervised- 
study plan, the stated-conference plan, the delayed-group plan, 
of the printed-directions-for-study plan is used, the outline will 
be of little or no service. In case such makeshift plans for 
supervised study as these last mentioned ones are used, the 
history teacher will have to be satisfied with meager results, for 
which he will not be wholly responsible. 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Allen, I. M. "Experiments in Supervised Study," School Review, XXV 
(1917), 398 ff. 

Armstrong, R. D. "Some Aspects of Supervised Study in History," 
History Teacher's Magazine, VIII (1917), 52 ff. 

Freeman, F. N. The Psychology of the Common Branches, chap. vii. 
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1916. 

Giles, F. M. " Investigation of Study-Habits of High-School Pupils," 
School Revieiv, XXII (1914), 478 ff. 

Hall-Quest. Supervised Study, chap. x. The Macmillan Company, 1916. 

Johnson, N. C. "Habits of Work and Methods of Study of High- 
School Pupils in Some Cities of Indiana," School Review, VII 
(1899), 257 ff. 
- JuDD, C. H. The Psychology of High-School Subjects, chap. xvii. Ginn 
and Company, 1915. 

KiTSON, H. D. How to use your Mind, chap. iv. J. B. Lippincott Com- 
pany, 1 91 6. 
" Knight, G. W. "How to study History," Ohio Educational Monthly f 
LXV (1916), 587 ff. 

Merriman, E. D. "Technique of Supervised Study," School Review, 
XXVI (1918), 35 ff. 

Reavis, W. C. "The Importance of a Study-Program for High-School 

Pupils," School Review, XIX (1911), 398 ff. 

■ RiCKARD, G. E. " High-School Students' Descriptions of their Methods of 

Study," School Review, XXII (1914), 673 ff.; Some Aspects of the 

Supervision of Study. M. A. Thesis, The University of Chicago, 1916. 

Thorndyke, Elizabeth. "A Lesson in History," Ohio History Teacher's 
Journal (November, 1916), pp. iioff. 

Whipple, G. M. How ta study Effectively. Public-School Pub. Co., 
Bloomington, 111., 1916. 



CHAPTER III 

SPECIAL METHODS OF PROCEDURE: LECTURE 
AND TEXTBOOK 

Underlying and in a large measure determining what the 
history teacher does in the recitation and in the supervised- 
study periods Is his special method of procedure. In fact, one 
might say with a good deal of truth that the method of pro- 
cedure which the teacher follows from day to day is one of the 
paramount elements upon which his success or failure depends. 
Not that there is but one method to use on all occasions, but 
a variety, the best way to do a particular piece of work being 
left to the judgment of the teacher. To assist him in deciding 
just what method to use in teaching the various phases of the 
history course, a somewhat elaborate consideration of the five 
special methods of procedure used most extensively in teaching 
high-school history is included in this and the following chapter, 
attention being directed first to a discussion of the lecture and 
textbook methods, which in turn is followed by an examination 
of the topical, source, and problem methods. 

The Lecture Method 

It is interesting to note that the two methods of teaching 
history in most common use today are the ones used most gen- 
erally in the infancy of instruction in history in this country. 
Reference is made here to the lecture and textbook methods. 
It is true now, as it was in the early forties of the nineteenth 
century, that the lecture method is utilized more than any other 
single one in historical instruction in colleges and the textbook 
method in secondary schools. However, before the modern high 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 49 

school came into existence history was taught in academies 
doing work of a secondary grade, and the lecture method was 
occasionally employed. In his study of the teaching of history 
in New York, W. F. Russell cites the following defense of the 
lecture method as it was used in 1839 in the Oneida Institute: 

The last year I pursued a different course. I prepared lectures 
upon the several subjects belonging to mental science, and delivered 
them to tlie students of my classroom. The time allotted to this 
subject was, one day, consumed by the lecture ; on the next day 
a recitation was had upon the subject and the matter of the lecture. 
In this way we proceeded, till with a good degree of thoroughness 
and success, we disposed of the topics commonly attended to in 
this department of study. In the same way instruction was given 
in . . . political economy and the science of government. 

As an instructor, I suppose my business is mainly to impart an 
impulse, and to afford guidance. Adherence to the text-book seems 
to me to be prejudicial to the object I am bound to promote in both 
respects. An instructor is supposed to be more or less acquainted 
with what he undertakes to teach ; to have put himself in possession 
of what he offers to impart. Will he not be likely to feel a livelier 
interest in his work and to impress himself more deeply and perma- 
nently on his pupils, if he is permitted and encouraged to express 
his own thoughts in his own way, than if he is required or expected 
to repeat the sayings of another? Besides, if he is much given to 
observation and reflection, he may often find occasion to differ from 
any of our various text-books. If he should agree with them in the 
main principles and leading doctrines which they maintain, he may 
prefer other methods and illustrations. ... The text-book can 
hardly fail to be in the way of an instructor who is at all given 
to thinking. . . . He will now find it necessary to spend time in 
removing rubbish, and now in filling up a chasm ; and amid criti- 
cisms and corrections and supplements the student all raw and un- 
practiced will lose himself.^ 

In spite of this splendid defense of the use of the lecture 
method in the secondary school, there is a number of seemingly 

^ " Early Methods in teaching History in Secondary Schools," History 
Teacher'' s Magazine, VI, 15. 



l/ 



50 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

unanswerable objections to its use as the method of teaching 
high-school history rather than a method. Chief among these 
objections are : 

1. It fails to develop initia,tive in the student. 

2 . It substitutes the interpretation of the individual teacher 
for that of the textbook writer who in most cases knows much 
more about the subject. 

3. It gives the teacher much more time than he should have 
in a given number of recitation periods. 

4. It robs the students of the prerogative of expressing 
themselves about things which they have read. In other words, 
it robs them of recitation time legitimately theirs. 

5. It violates one of the most fundamental principles of 
secondary instruction ; namely, that education is a developing 
process. The lecture, or, as someone has called it, the funnel 
method of instruction, places the emphasis on pouring in rather 
than drawing out. 

6. It makes the subject rather than the student the center 
of gravity. Through its constant use, history comes to be 
taught for the sake of history rather than for the sake of the 
pupil. 

In spite of these fundamental objections to the use of the 
lecture method in high-school history instruction, there are 
modes of utilizing it which if not carried to an excess are 
destined to produce good results. The writer has observed four 
distinct ways of using the method, not all of which, however, 
can be defended. In a class in United States history in one of 
the largest and best-known high schools of the Middle West, 
he saw a teacher employing the method in the form of a series 
of exercises in dictation. In this particular instance a class of 
some twenty red-blooded and wide-awake boys were spending 
the recitation time in copying word by word a dictated lecture 
on slavery that the teacher had written. It is needless to say 
that such a time-killing use of the lecture method has nothing 
whatever in its favor. 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 51 

There are, however, occasional utilizations of the method to 
serve specific purposes which can be defended. Suppose the 
teacher wishes to give the pupils training in note-taking on 

Jectures and reports. One of the best ways to do this is for 
him carefully to prepare a well-organized lecture on some topic 
connected with the daily history work and to deliver it to the 
class and require each member to take notes on it. Another 
legitimate use which can be made of the lecture is to give the 
pupils a perspective view of the entire course or of a particular 
movement, such as the Reformation, the French Revolution, or 
of an interval of the history of the United States, for example, 
the period since the Civil War. Since ready-made perspective 
views of these and similar units of instruction are not always 
accessible to the students, the practical thing for the teacher 
to do is to present them in the form of a lecture or a story. 

An adaptation of the traditional college lecture method to 
high-school students is in some quarters defended. One such 
adaptation provides for diyiding_ihe recitalioiL-pmod into -two- 

_ap.projdmately equal parts. In the second part of the period 
the instructor tells the story of the advance lesson and gives an 
assignment of reading to cover it. This story does not aim to 
give all the details ; it is rather a comprehensive view of the 
entire lesson unit which the teacher expects to discuss with the 
class in the first part of the recitation the following day. 
Another way of stating what the teacher does in this part of the 
period is, to say that he elaborates in considerable detail the 
assignment of the next day's work. The purpose of this elabora- 
tion is to give the pupils a n ove rYl,ewLMjthe unitj3£ instruction 
on which they are asked to prepare and recite the following day. 
The formal reciting is to be done during the first part of the 
period, and should include a thorough discussion of the material 
covered the previous day in the lecture. Drilling and testing also 
come in this part of the period where and when they are needed.^ 

1 Morehouse, " Some Criticisms of the Usual Form of the History 
Recitations," School and Ho7ne Education, XXXIV, 144. 



52 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

The fourth and last use of the lecture method in instruction 
in high-school history to be considered here is the case in which 
the teacher talks during the entire class period, the pupils taking 
notes and subsequently reading in books about the material 
presented in the lecture. During his lecture the teacher uses 
pictures, charts, maps, and source extracts ; in fact, everything 
at his command to make concrete the particular subject he is 
presenting. Tests are given from time to time to determine the 
progress the pupils are making. It will be observed that in this 
use of the method one has oral instruction reverting to its 
ancestral type, the l ectur e methocL_pure arid_unadulterated^ 
A constant use of the method in this form has but little in 
its favor. 

In spite of the existing fact that the lecture method in teaching 
high-school history is employed in one or even all of the fore- 
going forms, most teachers agree that it should not be the 
method. A better way to view the situation is to consider the 
lecture as a device rather than as a method. By this is meant 
that it is a way to do a certain piece of work which cannot be 
done so well in any other way. If the teacher gets into the habit 
of looking upon the lecture method in this light, it becomes an 
effective tool for occasional use and for a specific purpose, 

'^/ The Textbook Method/ 

The teacher who uses the textbook method in teaching history 
adheres rather rigidly to the text in the selection and the se- 
quence of topics, in the organization of the field, and in the 
emphasis on topics. If utilized in its original form it means 
following the textbook chapter by chapter, topic by topic, and 
page by page. 5 Assignments are made in terms of chapters and 
pages in the exact order presented by the author. The teacher 
is a hearer of lessons, and the individual who can most nearly 
reproduce the exact words of the text is a star pupil. While 
this memoriter-like use of the method is quite out of date now, 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 53 

it nevertheless was looked upon with considerable favor in the 
early days of history teaching in this country. For example, 
C. A. Goodrich, in his History of the United States, published 
in 1822, gave the following suggestions to the teacher: 

1. The general division should be first very thoroughly committed 
to memory. 

2. That portion of the work which is in large type embraces the 
leading subjects of history, and should be committed to memory 
by the pupil. That part which is in smaller type should be carefully 
perused. 

3. It is recommended to the teachers not to make a severe ex- 
amination of the pupil until a second or third time going through the 
book. This should be more particularly observed in regard to 
young and backward pupils.^ 

This rote work, as recommended by such a popular textbook 
writer as Goodrich (150,000 copies of whose text were said to 
have been sold before 1834 and 500,000 before 1870-), was 
also favored by the teachers themselves. For example, in de- 
.scribing the method used in teaching history in 1840 in the 
Plattsburg Academy, the reporter said : 

We require to be oommitted to memory exactly in the language 
of the textbook. We think that by that course we not only secure 
as good or better understanding of the principles required to be 
learned as is obtained by leaving pupils to express the idea in their 
own language, but we also secure a habit of precision and accuracy 
of language, which the other system tends rather to destroy.^ 

To this formal rote work or memoriter system of instruc- 
tion there appeared early in the teaching of history in this 
country certain objectors. There were two classes of these re- 
formers, the one believing in a modified form of rote work, the 
other tabooing such work altogether. The view of those believ- 
ing in rote work in a modified form was well expressed in a 
report made in 1837 by the principal of the Troy Female 

1 Quoted by Russell in T/te Early Teaching of History, p. 20. 

2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. p. 22. 



54 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Academy. On this particular subject the report commented 
in the following interesting and concrete manner : 

There are certain subjects of study, which must, of course, be 
learned memoriter. . . . But in such subjects as history, . . . etc., 
the method of requiring a few sentences to be repeated by rote, is 
wholly absurd. . . . The teacher's first business is to make his 
pupils understand the subject, etc. . . . When the author's own 
clue to the subject is once fairly obtained, fluency of speech will 
follow, and the pupil of taste will rarely fail of committing to 
memory the finest passages of the finest writers, and we consider 
that taste and style are both improved in the exercise. Such a pupil 
may be said by the ignorant to recite memoriter ; but the better 
informed perceive by the eye, intonation, and the emphasis, that 
the words used stand in the mind of the speaker as signs of ideas, 
which he has by study, made his own.^ 

The view of those believing in no rote work in history teach- 
ing was well summarized in a report from the Rochester Col- 
legiate Institute in 1849 i"^ reply to a questionnaire on the 
subject. A part of this report read as follows : 

But in the teaching of history, . . . etc., what demand ought to 
be made upon the memory of the pupil ? Shall the pupil be required 
to commit the whole lesson to memory ? By practice students can 
be brought to recite pages memoriter at a time ; but will they long 
retain the knowledge thus acquired ? All experience, except in a 
few very uncommon cases, replied in the negative. 

A far better method than this is, so to study the lesson that the 
pupil may be able to give the facts, thoughts, speculations, in his 
own language, and in the language which is far removed from that 
of the author, provided it is only correct and precise. This involves 
what is called an analysis of the textbook. But analysis is ever a 
profitable method of study. By practice it becomes easier than 
mere learning memoriter, and will abide longer in the memory. 
True, the demand on the teacher is greater, for he must himself 
know the author, in order to be able to hear an analysis of the 
lesson and know its correctness or the contrary.- 

1 Russell, The Early Teaching of History, p. 21. ^ Ibid. p. 22. 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 55 

The views relative to the use of the textbook in the teaching 
of history presented above had their champions throughout the 
nineteenth century. Gradually, however, the pure-rote-work 
supporters became fewer and fewer, and in time were dubbed 
old-fashioned, formal, and dry. Even the compromisers had to 
surrender to the no-rote-work supporters. As early as 1878 the 
following statement appeared in the preface of a much-used 
history of the United States : 

The days of assigning lessons by the page and of listening to 
memoriter recitations (textbook in hand, to insure a verbatim 
repetition of the author's language) are fast passing away. The 
methods of the time demand that teachers shall actually teach, 
and that recitations shall be tests of the pupil's real grasp of the 
subject under consideration.^ 

This quotation should not convey the idea that assigning 
history lessons page by page was passing so rapidly in 1878 as 
soon to disappear altogether. There remained in this country 
long after this date teachers who assigned lessons page by page 
and listened with textbook in hand to near-memoriter recita- 
tions. The writer himself has observed history recitations in 
which the exact words of the author were repeated by the 
students in reciting. In view of these well-known facts, and 
in view of the fact that most history teachers in junior and 
senior high schools will base their work mainly on a textbook 
in the hands of the pupils, it seems worth while to examine the 
textbook method in some detail in order to see how it can be 
used most effectively. Let us begin our examination by first 
con- ' iering some things in favor of the much-abused textbook 
in \. tory. 

1 ire are at least four legitimate claims to be made for the 
tiad onal textbook in history. Briefly summarized they are 
(i) textbook in history gives the teacher an outline of 
the A )rk, a core, a backbone; (2) the material in the text 

1 Be ard, Histoiyofthe United States, revised by C. E. Bush (Philadelphia, 

1878)^^.3. 



56 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

furnishes the basis for a unified discussion ; (3) with a text in 
the hands of each member of the class the teacher is assured 
of a certain amount of material organized around specific 
topics ; (4) regular, definite, and systematic assignments can 
be made with a text as the basis. 

Of course there are many history teachers who do not need a 
ready-made outline such as the text provides. While granting 
this fact, however, it must also be kept in mind that there is, 
unfortunately, a large number of people attempting to teach 
history who are unprepared to make a meritorious outline. So, 
for the good of the cause of history teaching in junior and 
senior high schools, it is a great advantage for the inadequately 
equipped teacher to have the textbook to guide him. Indeed, 
the teacher who is prepared to make an outline absolutely 
independent of the textbook should not be encouraged to do so 
as long as the pupils buy one book and use it as a text. In 
order that he may get the unity desired in the recitation the 
teacher's outline for daily use should be actually identified by 
the pupils in the text they use. When every member of the 
class has read, in following a guidance outline previously given 
by the teacher, a definite amount of exactly the same material, 
the teacher has a basis for unified work which cannot be secured 
when each member reads a different discussion of the topic 
under consideration. Thus it will be seen that the text, good or 
bad, furnishes a basis for applying one of the fundamental prin- 
ciples governing a good recitation in history, namely, unity. 

To assure commendable work on the part of the pupils, daily 
assignments must be regularly, definitely, and systematically 
made and must center around well-organized topics. A rood 
text in the hands of the pupils is a great aid in securing r; lu- 
larity, definiteness, and system in assignment-making. The 
old-time page-by-page assignment did these very things, ugh- 
school students like to know exactly what is expected of 'i-in. 
When they are directed to read and outline a fixed numbjr of 
pages in their text, there seems little cause for misunderst? di! ;<. 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 57 

While this is not the best form for an assignment to take, 
it does, if used, assure the teacher of one of the elements of a 
good assignment, definiteness ; and the fact that the material 
in these pages is perchance organized by the author around one 
big topic makes it possible for the pupils to outline it. 

The foregoing discussion of the advantages of a textbook in 
high-school history teaching becomes more practical when 
viewed in connection with the other side of the problem — the 
disadvantages, or, better, the defects in the history text which 
must be overcome by the teacher in using the textbook method. 
Chief among these defects are (i) no one text seems able to J\ 
give an adequate treatment of all of the most important topics ; 
(2) uu text can set up a sufficient number of historical problems 
and give suggestions for their thoughtful and progressive solu- 
tion ; (3 ) a textbook is of necessity what it purports to be, a 
text, dealing primarily in generalizations and statements to be 
elaborated and made concrete ; (4) the frequent use of such 
abstract terms as society, sovereignty, civilization, spiritual, 
secular, national, democracy, and secularization seems unavoid- 
able to some writers of texts; (5) a logical rather than a 
teaching organization is followed in most texts. In other words, 
the subject is of more importance to the author than the pupils 
who are to use his book. 

Some elaboration seems necessary to clarify certain of these 
seemingly unpreventable defects in history textbooks. As 
to the first one, it should be added that few or no texts ever 
agree 01 the topics of most importance in any field of high- 
school ■ istory. Furthermore, tradition, coupled with a rather 
fixea piice beyond which publishers are unwilling to go be- 
cause 0; the dictates of a public accustomed to buying texts in 
history it a more or less standardized price, confines the author 
to a de mite number of pages. Hence there is left but one of 
two thirgs for him to do. He must either condense his discus- 
sion of ach topic treated and include a great many topics, or 
reduce uie number of topics and elaborate the discussion of 



/ 



i 



S8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

each. The author usually takes the first of these alternatives 
and leaves to the teacher the problem of amplifying his generali- 
zations and making them concrete with illustrative materials. 

Important as it is for the teacher to know the advantages of 
a textbook as well as its imperfections, the fact remains that the 
proper use of a text in history, in securing all the advantages 
claimed for it and in overcoming the shortcomings charged 
against it, is with most junior and senior high-school history 
teachers the fundamental problem to be solved. This is true 
because textbook lessons in history are almost everywhere the 
rule in this country. We are a textbook-using people, and 
there are no indications that we shall change our system in 
the near future, hence the best way to use the textbook in 
teaching in high schools rightly assumes a place of great 
importance in the thinking and planning of progressive history 
teachers. 

Professor Johnson, in his admirable chapter on "The Use of 
Textbooks" in his Teaching of History in Elementary and 
Secondary Schools,^ summarizes three modes of procedure in 
making the textbook in history the chief instrument in training 
for independent study, a very important goal for all instruction 
in the subject. Briefly stated they are: (i) Pupils are sent 
to the textbook without preliminary suggestions' and directions 
and asked to read a certain number of pages. On coming to 
the recitation they are questioned sharply on what they have 
read. They are expected to know all the points made by the 
author in the matter read, for they are never sure just what 
ones the teacher will demand in the form of answers to his 
questions. (2) Besides being asked to read a prescribed number 
of pages pupils are required to analyze what they read and 
bring to the class the results of their work in the form of a 
written outline. At the beginning of the recitation one pupil 
places his outline on the board. Other pupils criticize j' 
and make suggestions as to changes ; the teacher also adds a 

1 Chap. xii. 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 59 

favorable or an adverse criticism now and then — all resulting in 
an outline built on the cooperative plan. All pupils now copy 
the cooperatively constructed outline in their notebooks and it 
is made the basis of subsequent work with the textbook material 
on which it is based. (3) During some preliminary practice les- 
sons the pupils are taught with books open how to study and 
how to learn a lesson. In these practice lessons they are asked 
to notice the paragraph headings, to read the paragraph to find 
the different things mentioned, to name in three or four words 
each of these things and enter them in their notebooks, to relate 
the paragraph heading to the subject of the chapter, and so on, 
until they have analyzed the paragraph, named its separate 
parts, pointed out relations, and classified the material — all 
ending in an outline of the para^graph. Each paragraph in the 
lesson is treated similarly, and when all are outlined each pupil 
is expected to sum up the entire lesson with the outline before 
him, then, laying it aside, to sum up again the whole lesson. 
After eight or ten such lessons the class is supposed to be able 
to do the work alone, and the recitation will resolve itself into 
having uninterrupted reports on the work assigned. The whole 
lesson may be recited two, three, or four times by different 
members of the class, after which relations are traced, compari- 
sons are made, questions are asked, differences and resemblances 
are recognized, inferences are drawn, and applications are 
made ; the ideal of the whole procedure being to make the 
pupils so adept in the work that they can in a single reading 
learn what the book contains on a given subject. 

It seems quite unnecessary to point out the relative merits of 
the foregoing modes of procedure in using the textbook in his- 
tory teaching. Generally speaking, they are arranged in the 
order of merit, which order one might designate by the terms 
^'good," "better," "best." The important point in this con- 
nection is that there are other modes of procedure which Pro- 
fessor Johnson himself points out and some which he does not 
mention. Attention here will be given to what might be 



6o THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

distinctly designated as a fourth method, the general outline of 
which follows, with directions for its use. 

Before beginning the work with a class, let us say, in United 
States history, the teacher decides upon the general organization 
of the field that he is going to use for teaching purposes. Now, 
with this general organization as a guide, he outlines the entire 
field, making the text in the hands of the pupils the basis for 
his outline. This last statement means that the pupils will be 
able to identify the points in the outline in the text they are 
using. A good outline will, of course, contain items not found 
in the text at all, which is one of the strong features of the 
plan under discussion. 

The outline in question can be one of the two types men- 
tioned below or it may combine both types. For the teacher's 
own use it can be of the informational type and for the use 
of the pupils of the guidance type. Or, if the teacher prefers 
that the pupils have a duplicate of his own outline, he can use 
either of these types, the preference being in favor of the 
guidance outline in the hands of the pupil. An example of 
each of these types follows: 



AN INFORMATIONAL OUTLI>rE OF COLONIAL 
INDUSTRIES IN ABOUT 1763 

I. Agriculture. 

1. Chief problems presented were : 

a. Qualities of native plants had to be determined by ex- 

perience. 

b. European seed had to be adapted to new soils and a new 

climate. 

2. Experimental work lasted a century and a half. 

3. Farm implements were rude and scarce. 

4. Farming processes were wasteful. 

II. Lumbering and the manufacture of other forest products. 
I. Forests utilized as a source of exports easily procured. 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 6i 

2. Chief, products were shingles and timbers for masts, spars, 

and buildings. 

3. Much lumber and many shingles exported to West Indies, 

Portugal, and Spain. 

4. Value of exports of lumber in 1770 about $775,000. 

5. Naval stores such as tar, pitch, rosin, turpentine, masts, and 

bowsprits made in quantities and shipped to England 
($175,000 annually around 1770). 

6. Forest products such as potash and oak bark sent to England 

to value of about $290,000 annually around 1770. 
III. Fishing. 

1. Leading fisheries were cod, mackerel, and whale. 

2. Amounted to about $225,000 a year in New England in most 

of 1 8th century, 
IV. Fur trade. 

1. Carried on in all the colonies. 

2. Export of furs and peltries from all the colonies in about 

1770 around $670,000. 
V. Household industries. 

1. Flourished in all the colonies north of Maryland and in the 

back country of Southern colonies. 

2. Many farms, plantations, and villages were economically 

independent. 

3. Chief industries were soap-making and candle-making, spin- 

ning, weaving, hat-making, shoemaking, dressing leather, 
blacksmithing, and carpentry. 
VI. Manufacturing outside of the home. 

1. Restricted and forbidden by England. 

2. Hindered further by lack of capital and scarcity of labor. 

3. Chief articles for home consumption were : 

a. From iron: iron implements, household utensils, tools, 

and hardware. 

b. From other materials : leather goods, wagons, brass, and 

copperware, tinware, bricks, tiles, pottery, cordage, 
twine, sailcloth, liquors, salt, and hats. 



62 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

A GUIDANCE OUTLINE OF COLONIAL INDUSTRIES IN 
ABOUT 1763 

I. Agriculture. 

1. Chief problems presented. 

2. Experimental work. 

3. Farm implements. 

4. Farming processes. 

11. The manufacture of forest products. 

1. Lumbering. 

a. Source of supply. 

b. Chief products. 

c. Market for. 

d. Value of exports. 

2. Naval stores. 

a. Chief products. 

b. Market for. 

c. Value of exports. 

3. Other forest products. 

a. List of. 

b. Market for. 

c. Value of exports. 
III. Fishing. 

1. Leading fisheries. 

2. Annual output. 
IV. Fur trade. 

1. Extent of. 

2. Value of exports. 
V. Household industries. 

I. Where they flourished. 
, 2. Effect on homes and plantations. 

3. Chief industries. 

VI. Manufacturing outside of the home. 

1. Restriction on by England. 

2. Other hindrances. 

3. Chief articles. 

a. From iron. 

b. From other materials. 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 63 

Now, with either of these outlines before him, preferably the 
latter, the pupil goes to his text and masters what he finds 
there on the various topics. After getting what his text has, he > 
turns to other references for additional information, the teacher X 
in making the assignment having previously given the book or 
books with the exact pages containing this additional material. 
On coming to the recitation each member of the class must be 
able to contribute something on the majority of the general 
topics in the guidance outline, as well as to furnish information 
not contained in the text. In order to get the material before 
him in a form that is more or less his own, each student should 
turn the guidance outline the teacher has given him into an 
informational one of his own making. A good way for him to 
manage this is to put the guidance outline always on the left 
page of his permanent notebook and use the opposite page 
for his own notes, which can be in the form of an informational 
outline if he so desires. Such a device makes it possible to 
add information given in the class which the student did 
not find in his reading, and thus to utilize, in a connected and 
organized form, the results of his own reading and of the 
class discussions. 

A practical application of this method of using the textbook 
in history may be described as follows : Spend a few days, or 
weeks, if necessary, in going through the text in the hands of 
the pupils in developing and establishing the general divisions 
previously decided upon by the teacher. After this preliminary 
work has been well done, the first division of the field can be 
viewed to discover in a general way what the text contains on 
it. A guidance outline of this unit can now be placed in the 
hands of each student, attention being called to the fact that it 
is based on the text. Lessons are now assigned in terms of the 
outline, including text and reference materials. Sometimes a 
single lesson will cover ten pages in the text and sometimes 
three or perhaps none at all. On finishing his preparation in 
terms of the guidance outline before him, the student comes to 



64 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

the recitation ready to discuss in considerable detail the major- 
ity of the points in it. When reference material is accessible but 
to a few members of the class at a time, reports on specially 
assigned topics can be relied upon to supply the information 
called for in the outline not found in the text. The recitation 
is carried on in terms of the guidance outline by the simple 
announcement of topics or by the asking of questions based 
upon it, preferably the former, the questioning being left until 
each pupil has had his say on the topic under discussion. Re- 
views are also carried on in terms of the outline. An informa- 
tional outline of his own making might be memorized with profit 
by the pupil. By the use of a guidance outline in the manner 
described above the teacher can solve the three big problems 
pertaining to the use of a text in high-school history, namely, 
the problem of elimination, the problem of addition, and the 
problem of emphasis. 

Whatever one might say concerning the merits and demerits 
of any one of the foregoing modes of procedure in using the 
textbook in teaching history in junior and senior high schools, 
the fact should be kept in mind that there is probably no one 
method which should be used in each of the six years repre- 
sented in these schools. For the best results with students who 
pursue history work for two or more years in the junior and 
an equal amount of time in the senior high school some varia- 
tions should be made in the method of using the textbook. 
Where any serious consideration is given to this matter teachers 
of history and heads of history departments in these schools 
will finally come to see that for the sake of the students as well 
as the subject of history some scheme must be worked out 
which will assure the application of the principle of progress 
within the subject. By this is meant that if one method of 
procedure in using the textbook has been employed in the junior 
high-school history classes, either another method or a more 
advanced application of the same method should be used in the 
senior high school. In fact, there should be progress from year 



K 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 65 



to year if maximum results are to be attained. Using the pre- 
ceding four modes of procedure as the basis for a scheme which 
purports to apply the principle of progress, one might construct 
a general plan of work similar to the one below. Of course, 
if a teacher knows and uses other methods of procedure and 
can work them into a scheme which will insure progress, well 
and good. The important thing in this connection is not the 
scheme, but a scheme — something to bring order out of existing 
disorder, or rather no order. 



GRADATION IN MODES OF PROCEDURE IN THE USE OF THE 
TEXTBOOK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 

A. Junior High School. 

I. First year (Grade VII). A method not described above. 
Use the text as a reading book largely. Let the chief 
aims be training in reading historical literature and 
arousing interest in it. Place little emphasis on informa- 
tion as such, but much emphasis on how to secure knowl- 
edge from books. Recitations should be very informal, 
ample opportunity being given the children to express 
their opinion of what they read. Read books other than 
the text if possible. Let the chief characteristic of the 
method be that it is no one method, but rather the doing 
of anything with the text that will encourage the children 
to do a wide range of reading and to express their views 
freely about what they read. Socialize the work 
in every possible way. Have no formal examina- 
tions. Considerable written work of an informal char- 
acter can be done in connection with the regular work 
in composition. 
II. Second year (Grade VIII). Begin by going straight through 
the text to establish the general organization for teaching 
purposes predetermined by the teacher. In studying each 
main division of the field thus established use the first 
method described above ^ to obtain a preliminary or 

1 P. 58. 



66 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

perspective view. A free and not a rigid use is meant 
here. Simply let the children go through a certain amount 
of the text from day to day and discuss informally during 
the recitation period what they read. Reading outside 
of the text may also be done. In going over the division 
a second time a form of the fourth method given above 
could be used. A systematic guidance outline of the 
main divisions should be given the children from day to 
day by the teacher, the textbook to be the basis of this 
outline. Lessons are prepared, reading outside the text is 
done, recitations are conducted, and reviews are made 
in terms of this outline. 
III. Third year (Grade IX). Begin the work by giving the 
students some systematic training in how to study and 
how to learn a lesson. With books open let them do all 
that is suggested under (3) on page 59. After a certain 
amount of this cooperative work, each student should 
do some independent outlining. This will give an oppor- 
tunity to apply the training previously received in co- 
operative outhning. Some time early in the second half 
of the year, the fourth method described above should be 
introduced.^ At the end of this year the pupils should 
be doing in an elementary way practically everything 
suggested in the description of this method. 
B. Senior High School. 

I. First year (Grade X). Begin by going straight through 
the text, establishing the large divisions of the field pre- 
viously determined by the teacher. After this work has 
been well done, proceed with the first main division as 
suggested for Grade VIII. When this division is finished 
adopt the method which calls for cooperative outlining 
and continue to use it for the remainder of the first 
semester. Begin the second semester by requiring pupils 
to analyze what they read and to bring to the class a 
written outline of their readings. After a few weeks 
of work of this type change to the fourth method de- 
scribed in some detail on pages 60 ff. At the end of this 

1 See pp. 60 ff. 



LECTURE AND TEXTBOOK METHODS 67 

year, pupils should be rather efficient in outlining and 
mastering the content of historical material. 
II. Second year (Grade XI). Begin in the same way as in 
Grades . VIII and X. Continue the individual and the 
cooperative outlining long enough to see that the 
pupils understand what these two types of work demand. 
In due time change to the method used in the 
second semester of Grade X. Administer this method 
in as advanced a form as the subsequent training of the 
pupils and material equipment of the history department 
will admit. 
III. Third year (Grade XII). Duplicate the methods used in 
Grade XI. Attain progression by demanding and secur- 
ing a higher type of work. 

If those in charge of history work in junior and senior high 
schools should adopt the foregoing scheme or a similar one — 
in fact, any progressive plan — a great deal of duplicated effort 
would be saved. At the same time the pupils who pursue the 
study of history in these schools would be assured a progression 
in securing historical information, through the reading of texts 
and other books, that never can be attained in the haphazard 
ways in which they are usually taken through their courses in 
history at the present time. 

Before this consideration of the use of the textbook in 
teaching history is concluded, something should be said relative 
to a phase of the work not included in the discussion thus far, 
namely, word study. Each subject in the curriculum has a 
peculiar vocabulary of its own. In few subjects are the words of 
more practical value in later life than those found in the social 
studies, including history. Take, for example, such words as 
politics, constitution, arbitration, initiative, referendum, short- 
ballot, economics, democracy, contraband, law, federal, judicial, 
militarism, executive, legislation, tariff, demagogue, Csesarism, 
league, social, municipal, chivalry, industrial, institution, diplo- 
macy, monopoly, and revolution. Most of these words must 
be a part of every person's vocabulary if he is to read the daily 



68 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

papers and weekly and monthly magazines understandingly or 
converse intelligently on the common topics of the day. 

The pupil should have definite training in spelling, pronounc- 
ing, defining, and using words like the foregoing which appear 
in his daily lessons. A list of such words should be kept in every 
course, and some time be given to them as the work moves 
along. All sorts of contests can be planned. The teacher should 
realize that after the student has met a word and defined it on 
the basis of its ordinary use in his text, the only thing needed 
to make it habitual is drill, drill, drill. Not enough teachers are 
convinced of the importance of this word study. It is certainly 
a self-evident fact that a pupil will not express himself with 
ease and force on any historical topic unless he has a copious 
supply of meaningful words at his command. It is the teacher's 
business to see that he not only acquires this vocabulary, but 
that he also has much practice in using it. 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Johnson, Henry. The Teaching of History, chap, xi, "Textbooks in 
History"; chap, xii, "The Use of Textbooks." The Macmillan 
Company, 1915. 

Kelsey, R. W. "The Text-Book Method," History Teacher's Magazine, 

V (1914), 177 ff. 

Lautz, p. G. "Word-Study in History Teaching," History Teacher's 
Magazine, VI (1915), 220 ff. 

Morehouse, Francis. " Some Criticisms of the Usual Form of History 
Recitations," School and Home Education, XXXIV (1914), 142 ff. 

Russell, W. F. The Early Teaching of History in the Secondary 
Schools of New York and Massachusetts. McKinley Pub. Co., Phila- 
delphia, Pa., 191S. Reprinted from History Teacher's Magazine, 
V, 203-20S, 311-318; VI, 14-19, 44-52, 122-125. 

Sellery, G. C. "The Use of the Textbook," History Teacher's Maga- 
zine, II (1911), 219 ff. 

Tucker, Milo A. "Modern Methods for Teaching History,"- Education, 
XX (1899), 220 ff. 



CHAPTER IV 

SPECIAL METHODS OF PROCEDURE : TOPICAL, 
SOURCE, AND PROBLEM 

Three special methods of procedure remain to be discussed. 
Two of them are used quite extensively in present-day his- 
tory instruction, and one is important more for what it once 
attempted to do than what it is now doing. The first two 
are the topical and the problem methods, the last is the 
source method. Since the topical method is used so extensively 
attention will be directed to it first. 

The Topical Method 

Historically speaking, the topical method in teaching history 
made its appearance in the secondary schools of this country 
about 1885. The first literature on its use in schools below 
the college seems to have been Professor Albert Bushnell 
Hart's article on "How to teach History in Secondary 
Schools," appearing in Academy (Syracuse) in 1887.^ In 
this article Professor Hart made a survey of the teaching 
of history in the secondary school at this date. He found 
the textbook method almost universally used. There were, 
however, a few teachers using the topical method, probably 
a fourth of those reporting. Believing as he did at the time in 
the efficacy of the topical method, Professor Hart took occa- 
sion to argue in its favor. Chief among the advantages he 
claimed for it were that it ( i ) teaches the pupil to examine and 
use books; (2) throws upon him an educating responsibility 
of choice; (3) leads one to select the important from the 

1 Reprinted in Hart, Studies in Americmt Educatio7t, chap. v. 
69 



70 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

unimportant ; (4) obliges the pupil to compare and collate 
authorities; and (5) gives the pleasing sense of discovery.^ 

The practical working-out of the method as outlir ed by 
Professor Hart in his article contemplated the assigning of 
a topic to each member of the class, his idea being that the 
topical system should supersede the textbook recitation alto- 
gether. The topics were to be selected by either of two 
methods. One was to divide the whole field to be covered in 
a particular course into successive topics, and then have all 
pupils prepare on them, the recitation in this case being held 
on the subject and not on material in any one book. Where no 
attempt was made to have one topic succeed another in chrono- 
logical sequence the following system was recommended : 

Let the topics be given out in groups : a set of geographical 
subjects ; a set of biographical subjects ; a set of narratives ; a 
set of military subjects ; and so on ; out of each group, set for 
each pupil his own individual topic. When the group is given 
out, a circular of directions may be issued or put on the board, 
meeting the questions most likely to be asked and the difficulties 
most likely to arise and prescribing a form in which the answers 
are to be returned. Pupils should then be put on their own 
resources ; as their topics are all different, they cannot use each 
other's work ; as they are ail of the same kind, a ,few books will 
suffice for their sources, and the teacher can more easily control 
the work. 2 

This quotation from Professor Hart's article written about 
1887 is an excellent example of what the leading advocates 
of the method at that time considered a legitimate way 
to use it. Professor Hart and his followers were so intent 
on having the method universally adopted in the secondary 
school that they succeeded in getting the committee on his- 
tory, civil government, and political economy, a subcommittee 
working under the general direction of the famous Committee 
of Ten, to adopt a recommendation which on the face of it 
required the use of the topical method. For example, this 

1 Studies ill Aniericmi Education, p. iii. 2 ibJd, p. 113. ^ 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 71 

committee (reporting in 1892) recommended that two, three, 
or four parallel textbooks be used at a time, and that one 
whole year be devoted to an intensive study of a brief period 
in some field of high-school history, such as American history 
from 1760 to 1790. The chief thing of interest in connection 
with these two proposals of the committee is the subtle scheme 
they contained for the substitution of the topical for the 
textbook method. For how could one use two, three, or four 
parallel texts without employing some form of the topical 
method ? And furthermore, how could one, after declaring the 
lecture method unsuitable for the high-school level of history 
instruction, devote a year of intensive study to one brief 
period of history in the secondarj^ school without using the 
topical method ? 

On the topical method as such the committee had consider- 
able to say, resolution 22 reading "that the method of study 
by topics be strongly recommended, as tending to stimulate 
pupils and to encourage independence of judgment,"^ To 
accomplish these ends the topical method was to be used in 
two ways, the first being as a system of division of labor, all 
the topics combined covering the whole ground of the course. 
One topic was assigned to each student, and recitations were 
held upon topics calling for the special preparation of one 
student on each topic. The second use of the method con- 
templated a study of sources, the idea being to assign each 
member of the class a separate topic for independent investi- 
gation based on original materials. This last use finally de- 
veloped into the source method proper and subsequently secured 
quite a following. The first use has come down to us as the 
best type of topical method in high-school history teaching.^ 

A continuation of the history of the topical method step by 
step down to the present would add little to the practical 
phases of this discussion. It should be said, however, that 

^ Report of the Comjnitiee of Ten, p. 195. 

2 Ibid. " Methods of Historical Teaching," pp. 185 ff. 



72 THE TEACHING OF HISTpRY 

the impetus given the movement toward topical teaching in 
history by the foregoing committee resulted in its wider and 
wider adoption from year to year, until it finally came into 
almost universal use, the fact being that it is now one of the 
three most prevalently used methods. In a study ^ made in 191 5 
it was found that 116 out of 135 history teachers were using 
this method more than any other. The advantages claimed for 
it by these and other of its advocates at this date were : 

1. Events are more easily learned and remembered, because 
they can be grouped and studied in their logical and chrono- 
logical relations. By grouping all the facts about one topic 
and considering them in their proper relation to each other, 
it is possible to get a connected story of an event or movement. 

2. The teaching of one topic in a certain period of history 
facilitates the teaching of all other topics. For example, sup- 
pose one decides to use the following general topics in any 
given period of high-school history, say, the history of the 
United States from 1789 to 1829: (a) external history includ- 
ing foreign relations; (b) constitutional growth; (c) liter- 
ature; (d) social development; (e) commerce and industry; 
(/) general progress. After any one of these general topics 
has been studied thoroughly, much time can be saved in 
the consideration of the others, because of their interrela- 
tions. Knowing one topic in some detail furnishes the con- 
necting links necessary to facilitate the learning of others. 
In other words, such a use of the topical method is an appli- 
cation of the general truth contained in the statement that 
the plowshare of historical knowledge is kept bright, not so 
much by frequent rubbing as by constant .use in turning over 
fresh soil, the fresh soil in this case being the material studied 
in connection with each of the remaining topics included in a 
certain period of history, after one had been thoroughly 
considered. 

1 Published in a summary form in School Review, XXV, Nos. 2, 3, and 4 
(February, March, and April, 1917). 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 73 

3. When pupils are left to work up a topic more or less 
independently, they are taught to examine and use books; 
led to select the important from the unimportant ; and thrown 
upon their own responsibility for what they select. 

4. The topical method subordinates memory to reason and 
imagination, and gives students opportunity to know things 
by comparison. Historical personages, events, dates, and places 
are no longer remembered individually, but in their relation 
to some big movement ; hence knowing rather than mere 
memory becomes the important goal. 

In order that all of these four important advantages may 
be secured for the student, various forms and combinations of 
the topical method are employed. Chief among them are: 

1. Select a number of topics within one period of history, 
let us say, the Age of Pericles, or the Roman Empire. Assign 
each member of the class a topic and have him report from 
time to time. This is the college seminar method and has no 
place in the high school. It was tried out in the early nineties 
under the influence of the Committee of Ten, which recom- 
mended that a year in high school be devoted to an intensive 
study of one little period in history — the American Revolution, 
or the French Revolution, or the Reformation. Wherever this 
was attempted it was by the topical method, topics being 
assigned to individual students. 

2. Plan the whole course around a few big topics on which 
the class will work as a unit. This is especially applicable in 
European and ancient history. In European history topics are 
selected which are more or less common to all countries, the 
topic rather than the country being made the unit of the 
work. Democratic movements, social, educational, and reli- 
gious reforms, industrial conditions and combinations, and the 
life of the common people are some big topics which could 
be used. Or in the study of the history of the United States 
one subject or topic might be pursued throughout its his- 
tory. For example, the subject of agriculture could be studied 



74 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

from its crude beginning in colonial times to its present-day 
complexities, after which another subject or movement could 
be treated similarly. This use of the method is not as well 
adapted to the study of American as it is to European history, 
for when a subject like agriculture is pursued without 
interruption throughout its history in this country, the 
ramifications become so complex that the student gets 
lost in them. In other words, the road in the historical 
forest made by his study of this one subject closes 
up behind him as fast as he moves forward, and finally he 
becomes so bewildered that there is no longer any substantial 
progress made toward the goal. 

3. Select a certain period of history and teach it topically, 
the class working as a unit on each topic. To apply this way 
of using the method to the period of American history from 
1789 to 1829 one would proceed as follows: first, summarize 
the periods as a whole, with emphasis on the political. This 
summary should be in the form of a short story which each 
student learns ; after this story is thoroughly known, take up the 
following topics: (a) social progress and development includ- 
ing population, homes and home life, conditions of labor, social 
and moral betterment, religious activities, and educational life ; 
(b) industrial progress; (c) commercial development and 
foreign relations; (d) political history, using it as a basis for 
a summary and a comprehensive view of the period as a whole. 

This latter seems to be a better use of the method when 
applied to United States history than the second one described 
above. It certainly avoids the chief stumblingblocks of the 
second. Its merits also lie in the fact that it can be success- 
fully used with one or many texts, the best results, of course, 
coming when the teacher is not hampered by a scarcity of 
suitable material. 

To attempt to formulate a progressive use of the topical 
method does not seem worth while in this connection, for 
efficient history teaching demands that little use be made of 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 75 

the method except in its simplest form in the junior high 
school. Its chief use on this level of history instruction should 
be to accomplish certain things. It may be employed advan- 
tageously in the last half year devoted to American history in 
this school to make topical review of certain phases of our his- 
tory. Topics like the following might properly form the basis 
of such a review: 

1. Steps toward unifying the colonies and establishing the 
national government in 1789. 

2. The commercial and territorial policy of England toward 
the colonies ending in the Revolution. 

3. The development of transportation facilities (emphasize the 
period prior to i860). 

4. Our territorial expansion. 

5. Slavery and the slavery system. 

6. Revolutionary inventions and processes. 

7. The chief political parties and their doctrines. 

8. Important treaties with foreign powers and international 
relations. 

g. Finance, banking, and panics. 

10. Genesis of all the colonies and special consideration of Vir- 
ginia, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania. 

11. Our system of revenue. 

12. Civil-service reform and the spoils system. 

13. The present and past of the suffrage problem. 

14. Causes, results, and a few of the most important events 
of our various wars. 

15. Internal improvements (emphasize the period prior to i860). 

16. Chief facts in the history of agriculture. 

17. Trusts and industrial combinations. 

18. Labor and labor unions. 

19. The factory system in the United States. 

20. The presidents, time, chief events, and party. 

It will be observed that a few of these twenty topics could be 
used for the purpose of review even before the entire field of 
American history had been covered by the textbook method. 



76 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

For example, numbers i and 2 could be made subjects for 
topical teaching after the period from 1763 to 1789 had been 
completed. This use of the method mainly for review purposes 
seems best adapted to the junior high school. In the first two 
years of the senior high school it can be advantageously era- 
ployed in the form described under 3 on page 74 ; namely, select 
a certain period of history and teach it topically, the class 
working as a unit on each topic. Or, if some topics continue 
through more than one period, a larger chronological division 
may be used. By the time the student reaches the last year of 
the senior high school he should be prepared for the topical 
method in almost any form. However, until history teachers in 
the senior high school are sure that their students are thor- 
oughly drilled in the use of the textbook method in the junior 
high school, they had better in all probability make large 
use of the textbook method themselves if acceptable results 
are to be obtained. 

The Laboratory, or Source-Study, Method 

Attention has already been called to the fact that the com- 
mittee on history which reported to the Committee of Ten 
recommended that some use be made of the source method in 
teaching history in the secondary school. While this is the 
first formal recognition of the method by a respectable body of 
history teachers, its use had been individually advocated even 
before this committee made its report. In 1885 Mary Sheldon's 
Studies in General History (Students' Edition) was published. 
This book contemplated the adoption of the source method 
and purported to give sufficient material for the student's use. 
The most conspicuous actempt to use this book and the source 
method which it presupposed was in the state of Nebraska 
during and following the school year of 1896-1897. The two 
leading advocates of the method in this state were Professors 
Fling and Caldwell, of the University of Nebraska. Through- 
out the year the method was introduced these two gentlemen 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 77 

worked unceasingly for its success. They wrote for the 
teachers' use what was subsequently published under the 
title of Studies in European and American History, An Intro- 
duction to the Source-Study Method in History. In these 
studies detailed suggestions and helps on the use of the 
method were given the teachers. 

^ The steps in the application of the source-study / lethod 
as outlined by Professor Fling were three: First, the . Ludent 
was to answer six or seven questions or, in other words, solve 

-six or seven problems based on material given in his text. 
Each question was to be answered fully and the answer neatly 
written in a notebook and brought to class in that form. These 
exercises were to be read exactly as written, in answer to the 
question in the text when put by the teacher during the recita- 
tion period. Class discussions were to be carried on in terms 
of the written answers to the set of questions found in the 
text. After all questions on a topic had been answered and 
discussed, the pupil was ready for the second step, namely, 

'-analyzing the results of his study thus far ind stating them in 
outline form^/^This outline was brought to class, placed on 
the board, and criticized during the recitation. Ihe last step 
consisted in composing a short narrative based upon the out- 
line. This narrative was read and criticized during the recita- 
tion. Much emphasis was placed on notebooks, the material 
entered in them being arranged in this order: answers, class 
notes, outlines, narratives. 

Under the able leadership of Professors Fling ad Caldwell 
much enthusiasm for the method was created. One principal 
in writing about the success of the system in his school said : 

I used this method last year in my classes, and am using it 
again this year. This can be the only method of studying 
history ; it is not the passive reading of a narrative of history, 
but is the downright study, of the problems presented in the evolu- 
tion of a nation. In this method the pupil is not called upon to 
fill his mind with a number of facts, but he is called upon to work 



78 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

out the problems that any historian must solve. He is put into 
he workshop or laboratory of the historian. The narrative method 
c?n do little more than train the memory. . . . The source method 
does as much in training the memory as the old method, but, 
more than this, the other faculties are brought into use. The 
studi nt is compelled to study, to search, to weigh, to compare. 
All ii- is must surely be of more value than the old way of fiUing 
the sti dent's mind with a mass of facts and dates to be forgotten 
almost immediately. 

After using this method I am convinced it is the only way 
to study and teach history. It is true that the work is hard, 
. , . but he results are better. ... As we go on I find my 
pupils work out the problems with less and less difficulty. I 
think by the time they have completed the course they will be 
piepared to interpret, to some extent, the events that are being 
dail}'' enacted around them. The teacher must work, as well as 
the pupils. . . ^ 

Another teacher in making a report on the success of the 
work sa'id : 

I have been asked to report on the success of the work in high 
schools. F-om letters received from enthusiastic teachers in the 
state, I judge that they think it the only true method. My 
actual observation is confined to my own work, of which I may 
not be the best judge, but I will say that I could not, conscientiously 
employ any other metl-n;!. 

I think I have been n >t with every objection that can be urged 
to it, anc my faith in i i stronger than ever as the only scientific 
method. 7t is trdng history out of the insignificant place that it 
has had, ana is making it a subject of highest importance on account 
of its educational value. ^ 

Miss Fanny Baker, of the Nebraska City High School, 
summarized the advantages of the laboratory, or source-study, 
method as follows : 

I. Independent, clear, and logical thinking is developed. Of 
course, it is the business of the "studies" to do this, and really 

1 Fling and Caldwell, Sttidies in European and Ain eric an History, pp. 253 f, 

2 Ibid. p. 290. 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 79 

there is no escape from thinking. But they are not sufficient in 
themselves. There must be the work in outhnes and in narratives 
also. This is of inestimable value. There comes as a result of this : 

2. Growth of the spirit of research. It is such a pleasure to 
quote from Homer, Herodotus, or Thucydides ! I like to have 
my pupils read all the outside material possible that will help them. 
There is some danger of confusing them, however, unless plenty of 
time is taken. 

3. More original work and better work in English composition is 
done. 

4. There is increased enthusiasm and interest in study. I think 
tJie kind of notebooks used helps here. It encourages pupils to 
see work grow under their hands. 

5. Marked improvement is apparent in all work done by the 
history pupils. This method sharpens and brightens wits wonder- 
fully ! Then the definiteness required here tends to prevent slur- 
ring over work in other branches.^ 

One might suppose from the enthusiasm for the source 
method displayed in the foregoing quotations that it would 
have swept all other methods out of existence in a short time. 
Fortunately for the cause of high-school history teaching and 
the high-school students as well such a thing did not happen. 
However, some good did result from this enthusiasm. One 
such result was the publishing in a form easily accessible to 
high-school students of much source material. The source 
books, readings, translations, reprints, and the like in every 
field of history ordinarily taught in the high school originated 
in the one-time enthusiasm for the source method. This 
material has come to occupy an important place in all up-to- 
date and efficient high-school history teaching and has 
changed the problem of the present-day teacher from one of 
how to use the source method to one of utilizing the supply of 
source extracts so easily accessible.^ Because of this fact the 

^ Fling and Caldwell, Studies in European and American Ilisiojy, p. 303. 

2 Some examples of this material are Davis, Readings in Ancient 

History, Allyn and Bacon, 191 2 ; Webster, Readings in Ancient Histoiy, 



8o THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

remainder of our discussion of the source method will center 
on the ends to be sought in using source extracts and readings 
and how to utilize the available material in attaining these 
ends, 

^ When experienced history teachers are asked to state the 
ends that they hope to attain in using source extracts and read- 
ings they reply :y To make the subject real and vital, to get 
the spirit of the times, to acquaint the pupils with different 

. kinds of historical matter, to cultivate the historical sense or 
attitude, to aid in visualizing scenes, to illustrate the method 
of writing history, to stimulate interest in the history work, 
to get first-hand additional information on a point, to correct 
mistaken ideas, to illuminate the textbook, to make impressions 
stronger, to broaden the pupils' viewpoint, to give atmosphere, 
and to give slight training in research work.^ While other types 
of historical material contribute to the attainment of these 
important outcomes of good history teaching, source extracts 
and readings, if properly used, certainly make large contri- 
butions. Because of this fact the problem of how to use the 
source material now available to secure as many of the fore- 
going ends as possible becomes a very practical one, especially 
for the inexperienced teacher. Some ways of solving this 
important problem may be summarized as follows : 

I. Use in classroom for illustrative purposes. The teacher 
may read an extract or have some pupil read it. The reading 
should be accompanied by a short account of the author, how 
he secured his information, and where and how he wrote — by 

D.C. Heath & Co., 1913 ; MV ehster, /headings in Medieval and Modeiit Histoiy, 
D. C. Heath & Co., 191 7; Muzzey, Readings in American History, Ginn 
and Company, 191 5; McLaughHn, Readings in the History of the American 
Nation, D. Appleton and Company, 1914 ; Thallon, Readings in Greek His- 
tory, Ginn and Company, 1914 ; Robinson, Readings in European History, 
Ginn and Company, 1904, 1906; Tuell and Hatch, Readings in English 
History, Ginn and Company, 1913 ; Cheyney, Readifigs in English History, 
Ginn and Company, 1908. 

1 Gold, " Methods and Content of Courses in History in the High 
Schools of the United States," School Review, XXV, 278. 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 8i 

actual observation, from oral tradition, or from written ac- 
counts now lost. When used in this way the source extract 
must be rather short and have a direct bearing on the point 
to be illustrated. The purpose of the teacher in using the 
source in this manner is to make the facts very vivid, hence 
easy to remember. Only the most important facts should be 
so illustrated. 

2. Assign extracts of considerable length to students for 
rapid reading. Here the emphasis should be placed on the 
information attained. A brief, clear, written outline of the 
contents might be demanded. This is collateral reading and 
should be treated as such. 

3. Have pupils make a detailed study of a source extract 
of a limited length. This gives training in the critical study 
of source material. Definite questions might be set as problems. 
A good scheme is to have the questions in mimeographed 
form, leaving sufficient room for the student to insert his 
answer. When the questions have been answered, an outline 
should be made by the class, showing the answers in their 
proper relation to each other and at the same time presenting 
the topic as a whole. 

4. Have pupils make a detailed study of a number of 
sources dealing with the same event and later write an ac- 
count based on the information gained therefrom.^ The 
advocates of this use of the sources claim for it the follow- 
ing indirect benefits: (i) the pupil is taught that knowledge 
grows and certainty is attained through question and answer, 
and that the questioning must go on until no more questions 
can, be asked or answered ; ( 2 ) the application of this theory 
develops scientific skepticism and plays havoc with credulity ; 
the pupil demands proof and begins to understand what the 
word means; (3) he learns how difficult it is to arrive at 

^ The following source books are adapted to this type of work : Mc- 
Laughlin and Others, Source Problems in United States History; Duncalf and 
Krey, Parallel Source Problems in Medieval History ; and Fling, Source 
Problems on the French Revolution, — all published by Harper & Brothers. 



82 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

certainty and he becomes conscious and cautious in his own 
affirmations ; (4) a high standard is set in the organization 
of knowledge and in the careful formulation of it, that the 
statement may correspond to the evidence; (5) finally, the 
practical training in historical proof supplies the pupil with 
the means of distinguishing between good and bad, scientific 
and popular secondary works/ 

5. Constitutional, political, and liberty documents, such as 
Magna Charta, the Ordinance of 1787, the Declaration of 
Independence, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the like, 
should be seen and read, but not studied except in special 
cases and for a particular purpose. Pupils should be per- 
mitted and have the opportunity to browse in this material 
without any thought of analyzing or taking notes on it or 
being held for details. The aim should be primarily to have 
them cultivate a speaking acquaintance with the documents 
rather than attain an intimate knowledge of their contents. 

The safe and sane attitude toward the use of the sources 
for the high-school history teacher to take is that they are 
adjuncts to good textbook work and, as such, have an impor- 
tant place in junior and senior high-school history teaching. 

The Problem Method 

The word "problem" has been much overworked in recent 
educational literature. While the word has been in use long 
enough in the natural and exact sciences to attain a definite 
meaning and some respect, it is too much of a newcomer into 
the fields of geography and history to command like regard 
and to express the same idea to any considerable group of 
people. As interpreted by some individuals the expression 
''the problem method in the study of history" is as old as 
the source-study method. Indeed, the advocates of the source- 
study method used the two expressions interchangeably, and 

1 Fling, Source Proble?7is on the French devolution, Preface, pp. xii. 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS S^ 

no doubt to the present day assert that they are the originators 
of the problem method in history. When they make this 
assertion, however, they are not attaching the same meaning 
to the expression that current discussions of the subject do. 
While the words "question" and "problem" seem to convey 
the same meaning to the present-day advocates of the problem 
method, it is nevertheless true that the word "problem" as 
used in current discussion of the method has no very clearly 
defined meaning. While it may convey the same idea as 
the word "question," it seems to convey other ideas as well. 
The truth of the matter as it now stands is that, because of 
the variety of meanings attached to this much-used word, 
there is great need for a clear-cut statement of just what the 
problem-solving method in history study really is, and also 
for some clear-cut suggestions relating both to its advan- 
tages and to the manner in which it can be used. The next 
few pages will attempt to do these things. 

First, as to what the problem method in studying and 
teaching history really is. Briefly stated .it is a mode of 
fprocedure from day to day which rests essentially on questions, 
causes, and results as they relate to historical phenomena. It 
consists in leading the student to see the problems which 
confronted people in the past and to solve them as they 
|were solved by people in the past. The method, therefore, 
is an informal rather than a formal one. Assignments are 
made in terms of problems to solve, and lessons are prepared 
to solve a problem rather than to meet a requirement. For 
example, in teaching the history of the United States just 
after 1789, the teacher would first lead the class to see what 
problems confronted the people at this date. Some of these 
could be stated as follows : the problem of providing govern- 
mental machinery ; the problem of providing money ; and the 
problem of establishing satisfactory relations with foreign 
powers. All these problems were actually met and solved 
by the people in their work of getting the new government 



/ 



84 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

under way. Therefore, in teaching the topics represented by 
these problems the teacher would make his assignments in such 
a way that the pupils would solve a number of problems just 
as they were solved in the early years of the nation's history. 
As to the advantages of the problem method of teaching 
history over the more traditional methods, its advocates make 
the following assertions : 

1. It leads pupils to form judgments and to look behind 
facts for the human motive for the act. This gives good 
training in discovering the motives that prompt acts which 
pupils observe from day to day, thus making them keen 
observers of human nature. 

2. It arouses self-activity in a student to an extent that 
no other method in history does. This self-activity is forced 
to express itself in an intelligent manner, if wisdom is shown 
in the selection of problems. 

3. It teaches the student to get thought from the printed 
page. Since he goes to a page looking for a definite statement 
relative to the solution of some problem, he must learn to find 
the exact statement which he needs in solving his problem. 

4. The method challenges the intellect of the student rather 
than his memory. 

5. Teaching history by the problem method conforms to the 
following fundamental truth: ^^The indispensable prerequi- 
site to effective work is that the matter in hand shall be recog- 
nized and attacked as a problem." When history lessons 
are turned into problems, students attack them with a vigor 
unknown in page-by-page assignments. They go to their book 
to find the solution of a problem rather than a task to be 
performed. 

6. Life is a process of solving problems, and if history is to 
assist in the solution of life's problems, it must be taught in 
such a way as to give training in solving them. Since people 
in the past met and solved problems just as people today 
are meeting and solving them, it is the best sort of preparation 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 85 

for solving life's problems to go through the process of dis- 
covering how people in the past solved theirs. 

The only comment necessary in connection with these so- 
called advantages of the problem method in studying and 
teaching history is that history well taught by any one of 
the methods previously discussed would secure the advantages 
claimed for the problem method. In other words, the problem 
method is not the panacea for the present-day ills of history- 
teaching in junior and senior high schools. A long-continued 
day-by-day use of the method would be likely to end in 
disaster to the teacher, to the student, and to the subject, 
history. An occasional use of it to solve peculiar and out- 
standing problems should be encouraged. Of course there 
should be some problem solving in practically all lessons, but 
to use the method for an entire year as outlined below would be 
entirely too much of a strain on the three chief factors involved 
in the work ; namely, the pupil, the teacher, and the subject. 

It is one thing to talk glibly about the problem-solving 
method in history teaching and quite another thing to plan 
a course of study and a concrete method of procedure which 
will apply it. A conspicuous example of an attempt to 
outline a course of study based on the problem-solvjng method 
in history is found in a recent bulletin of the Department of 
Public Instruction of the state of New Jersey.^ One needs, 
however, but to glance through the course in history for 
Grades VII and VIII as outlined in this pamphlet to be 
convinced that the- trick is not turned when one simply 
begins, each main topic with the words ''how," "why," or 
"what." For example, instead of writing "The discovery 
of America" as most outlines do, this problem-solving outline 
has "How America came to be discovered." If the problem- 
solving method in history means nothing more than placing 

1 The Teaching of ^Geography, History, and Civics, 1917. A more recent 
example is the course of study in history for the public schools of Duluth, 
Minnesota, published during the summer of 1919. 



86 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

how, why, or what before the ordinary statement of a general 
topic, it has little to contribute to the cause of good history 
teaching. This effort, however, on the part of one up-to-date 
department of public instruction to get the method into a 
usable form should be commended, for it is through such 
efforts that the method will eventually become of great 
service to teachers of history. 

Space will not admit here of the working out of a series 
of problems in the various fields of high-school history, A 
concrete and detailed outline of one problem adapted to the 
junior and one to the senior high school will have to suffice. 
Since American history is universally taught in both of these 
schools, it seems more practical to give examples of the 
problem-solving method in this field. 

AN EXAMPLE OF THE PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD 
IN THE FIELD OF AMERICAN HISTORY i 

A. Junior High School. 

I. Introductory. There are four phases in the process of 
teaching a problem in the field of history. They are 
(i) stating and defining the problem; (2) suggestions 
as to its solution and their evaluation;, (3) collecting, 
tabulating, and organizing material ; (4) drawing con- 
clusions based on the material ; in other words, arriving 
at a solution of the problem. 
IL Stating mid defining the problem. Suppose the problem 
is that of financing the new government inaugurated 
in 1789, then a statement for teaching purposes could 
read "To provide a system of revenue for the newly 
organized United States government." This statement 
of the problem is intended to approximate actuality. 
Whether or not Hamilton ever stated his problem in 
these words, it is certain that they express what must 

1 The writer is under obligation to Mr. J. M. McConnell and Professor 
S. C. Parker for the general scheme underlying this example. See Parker, 
Exercises to accompany ^''Methods of Teaching in High Schools" pp. E93 ff. 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 87 

have been uppermost in his mind on assuming the 
duties of Secretary of the Treasury under the newly 
organized government. The teaching idea back of this 
statement of the problem is to get it in such a form 
tnat in solving it the pupils will in so far as possible 
relive the experiences of those who really provided for 
a system of revenue in the early years of our nation's 
history. 
III. Suggestions as to the solutions of the problem and their 
evaluation. These suggestions should come from the 
students before any reading is done. They should be 
tabulated as given and later evaluated. A wide-awake 
class will suggest some or all of the following : 

1. Tax imports and exports. 

2. Direct taxation ; ask each state for a certain quota. 

3. Place a tax on incomes. 

4. Issue bonds for immediate need. 

5. Tax whisky, tobacco, and the like. 

6. Tax deeds, mortgages, and similar legal documents. 

7. Sell the land owned by the government. 

8. Issue paper money. 

9. Increase postage rates. 
10. Sell lottery tickets.^ 

In evaluating these proposed solutions the class will soon 
discover the impossibility of taxing exports in 1789. The 
advantages and disadvantages of the others will be brought 
out in the course of the discussion. The supposition here is 
that the students will not previously have read Hamilton's 
financial proposals. It should be stated, however, that herein 
lies one of the difficulties of an ideal application of the 
problem-saving method. How is one to keep interested pupils 
from reading in advance of the actual lesson? 

^ To get the best results from an exercise like this the class must know 
the history of the eight or ten years just prior to 1789. In theory this his- 
tory should be known by the class as well as it was known by the people 
living in 1789. Such a knowledge would make the proposed solutions and 
their evaluation approximate those proposed and evaluated at the time. 



S8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

IV. Collecting, tabulating, and organizing materic.:. Reading 
and investigation are now in order. The text in the 
hands of the children will form the basis for these 
activities. Other reading matter should also be pro- 
vided. There is no danger of reading too much here. 
The class exercises will consist in tabulating the various 
items in Hamilton's scheme, explaining each in some 
detail, and presenting the arguments for and against 
the various measures. All this adds definiteness to the 
work and assures some of the advantages claimed for 
the method by its exponents. 
V. Drawing conclusions based on the foregoing material. These 
conclusions should first be worked out one by one by the 
class as a whole. Later they ought to be written up 
in summary form by each member of the group and 
placed in the permanent notebook. 

Since this example of the problem-solving method in Ameri- 
can history is adapted to Grade VII or Grade VIII, it could 
not be used with senior high-school students in American 
history, because most of them would know at the outset what 
is included under IV and V above. This situation would 
hold true of the entire field of American history, since the 
subject is so universally and in most cases so well taught in 
all junior high schools. Hence, if the teacher in the senior 
high school wishes to employ the method, he must seek an- 
other form. The following example is intended to offer some 
suggestions relative to a form which one might use. It is 
meant to secure the much-to-be-desired progress within the 
subject spoken of previously and considered in some detail 
later. 

B. Senior High School. 

I. Introductory. Use a modification of the four phases of the 
process of teaching the problem found in the example 
for the junior high school. As modified they should be 
(i) stating and defining the problem ; (2) suggestions on 
the part of the pupils as to the best ways of approach 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 89 

to a solution of the problem and their evaluation; 
(3) gathering the data by the method determined upon 
as a result of the discussion in (2) ; -(4) organizing the 
data gathered in (3) and drawing conclusions therefrom, 
II. Stating and defining the problem. For practical purposes 
the problem should be one which can be solved with- 
out the use of elaborate sources. The truth of the 
matter is that, since so few high schools have a supply 
of original material sufficient to work out any historical 
problem, the problem should be one that can be solved 
by the use of secondary material mainly. The fol- 
lowing one seems to meet this requirement : To show 
that the causes of the Revolutionary War were economic 
and religious as well as political, and that the question 
of the relative importance of these causes is a matter 
upon which historians disagree. 

In defining this problem it will be necessary to call atten- 
tion to what is meant by an economic cause, a political 
cause, and a religious cause. An example of each of these 
should be given in this connection. It will also be necessary 
to show what is meant by "relative importance" before it will 
be clear upon what the historians are disagreeing. When 
all these points are clear to the class, work on the second 
phase of the process may begin. 

III. Suggestions relative to ways of approach to the solution 
of the prchlem, and their evaluation. The following or 
similar suggestions will be given by the class : 

1. Look through the text for economic, political, and 

religious causes and tabulate these in separate 
columns. 

2. Look in general reference books dealing with the 

Revolutionary War for causes not listed in the 
text. Classify these as in i. 

3. Compare the treatment of the causes of the Revolution- 

ary War in as many parallel texts as possible. 

4. Read in books devoted solely to the Revolutionary War 

to find the opinion of specialists in the field. 



90 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

5. Organize and classify all the material collected by 
following out the foregoing suggestions. Draw con- 
clusions based on this material. 

Of course, if source material is accessible it should be 
employed. The amount of time to be spent upon the solution 
of the problem will determine the quantity of material that 
can be used. Such a problem, however, could not be solved 
without a few parallel textbooks. There must be an oppor- 
tunity to get the views of different historians. In the evalu- 
ation of the suggestions for solving the problem the ones 
determined upon will, of course, presuppose accessible material 
for carrying them out. Number i will be included in all 
selections ; number 5 will also be found ; whether or not 
the others appear will depend upon the material at hand. 
Even if a suggestion cannot be carried out, it is worth making 
and discussing, for the broadening effect it has on the con- 
ception of the historical method held by the class. 

IV. Gathering data by the method or methods determined 
upon as a result of the discussion under III above. 
First, the class will run through the discussion 
in the textbook, listing the causes of the Revolution 
mentioned therein. Almost any good secondary text will 
mention and discuss the following subjects. In listing 
them the class should be asked to show the connection 
of each to the war proper. 

1. Navigation acts. 

2. Writs of assistance. 

3. Demarcation line of 1763. 

4. Sugar Act of 1764. 

5. The Stamp Act. 

6. Ecclesiastical interference. 

7. "No taxation without representation." 

8. The social and political revolution within the colonies 

between 1765 and 1775. 
g. The Townshend acts. 
10. Boston Tea Party. 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 91 

After each of these causes has been listed and discussed 
to determine whether it is primarily religious, economic, or 
political, some parallel texts may be examined for similar 
material, note being made of the emphasis each places on the 
various kind of causes. If there is time and material avail- 
able, extended investigation of the following topics can be 
profitably made : navigation acts, colonial shipping, enumer- 
ated articles, smuggling, the Molasses Act, the Sugar Act, the 
trade between the colonies and Great Britain between 1764 
and 1775, the tea tax, and the laws restricting manufacturing. 
Thus it will be seen that with but a minimum amount of 
search in secondary authorities alone quite a formidable list 
of causes can be made. After a certain amount of this work 
has been well done the class is ready to take the next step in 
the solution of the problem. 

V. Organizing the data gathered in IV and drawing con- 
clusions therefrom. The organization may take the 
form of listing the causes enumerated in IV above in 
four columns headed as follows : 



I 

Mainly Political 


2 
Mainly Economic 


3 

Both Economic 
AND Political 


4 
Religious 


I. 


I. 


I. 


I. 




2. 


2. 


2. 





Much discussion will arise over the classification of certain 
causes listed under 4 above. It will, however, be possible to 
classify each cause under one of the foregoing four classi- 
fications. Differences of opinion will not matter ; they will be 
an aid in arriving at the solution of the second half of the prob- 
lem. When the classification is finished, the pupils will be able 
to see that each main group of causes was important and 
that a decision made once for all upon the relative importance 
of each group would be fraught with historical dangers, thus 
a cause for the disagreement found among historians. 



92 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

A word or so, in concluding this discussion of the problem 
method, might be said of its use in a more restricted form 
than either of the foregoing. For example, the class might 
be given this problem: "To prove that George Bancroft 
wrote President Johnson's first annual message." To solve 
this problem would, of course, involve sources of a peculiar 
nature, which in all probability few secondary schools would 
have. Then, on the other hand, a problem the solution of 
which would require what is known as parallel-source extracts 
might be given a class. The solving of a problem based on 
this type of material is highly desirable if the necessary 
equipment is at hand. Thus it will be observed that one can 
make the problem-solving method in history just as complex 
as one desires. The two examples given above purposely 
kept the method in a form that most history teachers can 
actually use. Those most enthusiastic for the method may 
wish to apply it in the solution of more complex problems 
which can be done with profit if suitable material is accessible. 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Branom, M. E. "The Project Method in History," chap, xiii in The 

Project Method in Education. Richard G. Badger, 1919. 
Elson, H. W. "Use of Sources in History Teaching," History Teacher's 

Magazine, I (1909), 2iSf. 
Fling, F. M. Source Problems on the French Revolution, Preface. 

Harper & Brothers, 1913. 
Fling, F. M., and Caldwell, H. W. Studies in European and American 

History. Ainsworth & Co., Chicago, 111., 1897. 
Freeland, G. E. "The Problem Method" and "The Project," chaps, ii 

and iii in Modern Elementary School Practice. TLie Macmillan 

Company, 1919. 
Hart, A. B. "How to teach History in Secondary Schools," Academy 

(Syracuse) (September, October, 1887) ;' also appears as chap, v in 

Studies in American Education. Longmans, Green, & Co., 1895. 
Johnson, B. T. "The Problem Method of Teaching History in the High 

School," Bulletin of the First District Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. 

History and Government Series No. 4, January, 191 6. 



TOPICAL, SOURCE, AND PROBLEM METHODS 93 

McCoNNELL, J. M. "An Example of the Problem-Solving Method in a 
Social Science," in Parker's Exercises to accompany '■^Methods of 
Teaching in High Schools," pp. E93 ff. Ginn and Company, 1918. 

O'Neil, W. J., and Roberts, Effie. " The Problem Idea in the Teaching 
of History," Normal Instructor and Primary Plans (March, 1917). 

Violette, E. M. " Setting the Problem," History Teacher's Magazine, 
III (1912), 181 f. 

Wesley, C. H. "The Problem of Sources and Methods in History 
Teaching," School Review, XXIV (1916), 329 ff. 



CHAPTER V 

PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 

It is a well-known fact that school administrators take 
liberties with history that they would not think of taking 
with other subjects. For example, no one ever heard of a 
high-school senior being permitted to take third-year Latin, 
mathematics, or German, without having had the first years 
of work in these subjects, as is frequently the case in history. 
The reason for this becomes evident when one reflects upon the 
fact that the principle of progress within the subject has 
been so firmly established in some of the high-school studies 
that no one ever thinks of violating it when administering 
them. The maturity exemplified in the organization and the 
teaching of Latin, algebra, and physics is not to be found in 
history and some of the other relatively new subjects in the 
high-school curriculum. 

The General Nature of the Problem and Some 
Attending Difficulties 

It should be said at the outset that progression within the 
subject of history cannot be wholly attained as it is in mathe- 
matics, Latin, and physics, where it is secured largely through 
the organization of the subject matter. In these subjects 
things must be learned in one-two-three order. The fact that 
that which follows is so closely related to all that goes before 
makes it necessary to know the old material before any sub- 
stantial progress can be made in acquiring the newT) While 
this logical sequence is in favor of these subjects when 
considered from the standpoint of their teachableness, yet, as 

94 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 95 

Judd has so well pointed out in his Psychology of High- 
School Subjects,^ some of the traditional studies are capable 
of even greater progression. There^is need in them for the 
same sort pr a very similar method of procedure that is 
needed in the social and natural sciences; for, as they are 
now taught, the principle of progress within the subject is 
too often subordinated to mere subject matter. Nevertheless, 
in spite of this fact, these subjects are much superior to 
history when considered as to their logical organization. His- 
torical facts, conditions, and institutions are, more or less, on 
a dead level when thought of as to their teachableness. The 
same fact can be taught in the first and twelfth grades with a 
certain degree of success. This is simply another way of say- 
ing that progression within the subject of history cannot be 
secured entirely through the selection and the organization 
of the facts to be taught. The problem of gradation in history 
is, therefore, largely one of method of procedure. This fact 
hasHBeen. so clearly demonstrated by Professor Johnson in 
his Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools^ 
that it needs no further elaboration here. 

Now, if progression within the subject of history is to be 
secured largely through method of procedure, is it possible to 
devise a method which will insure this progression? The 
writer's answer to this question is in the affirmative. Others 
have answered it similarly. Judd proposes the following solu- 
tion of the matter: 

'Suppose the history course could be organized in such a way that 
the demand made upon the student in the earlier years of the 
history course was, first of all, for ability to comprehend a coherent 
narrative of successive events. ) Suppose that at this stage we do 
not demand any very large explanation of the events studied. 
'Suppose that at the second stage of his study we ask the student 
not only to understand the history that he is studying, but also 
to understand the physical facts which influence history, making 

1 Pp. 459 f. 2 Chap. ii. 



96 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

at this stage of the course a correlation between history and 
geography. This would demand a power of comparison and asso- 
ciative thinking. Suppose that in the third stage we asked for 
a mastery of evidences upon which history is based ; that is, 
a critical evaluation of the original sources. Suppose, finally, at 
the last stage of historical discussion, we asked the student to 
make a critical comparison of the different authorities who have 
attempted to interpret a given period.^ 

History teachers are in general agreement with these sug- 
gestions relative to the solution of the problem of progression 
within their subject. It seems, however, that they omit an 
important item, namely, that of definitely assigning each stage 
to a specific grade in the high school. The four stages would 
suggest that they were to apply to the corresponding high- 
school years. If such be the intention, it might be suggested 
that high-school freshmen should be required to comply with 
more than the first stage demands. It might also be suggested 
that it would be better for the student as he proceeds through 
his high-school history course to become progressively efficient 
in each of the four proposed stages as he moves forward 
term by term. These reflections on Judd's proposed solution 
of the problem of progress within the subject of history will 
serve to call attention to its complexity and probably suggest 
some of the angles of approach to its practical solution. 

It might be well, at this stage of the discussion, to examine 
some of the chief difficulties connected with a satisfactory 
working out of our problem. To the writer's thinking, the 
following are the chief obstacles in the way of a complete arid 
systematic gradation of history and the teaching of history in 
the high school : ( i ) beyond one year, the subject is often 
elective ; ( 2 ) the required history is usually American, given 
in the fourth year; (3) school administrators have a notion 
that history can be used as a filler ; (4) the subject matter 
of history does not form the basis of a systematic progression 

^ Judd, Psychology of High-School Subjects, pp. 456 f. 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 97 

as it does in some other subjects ; ( 5 ) the intangibleness of 
the results to be obtained from the study of history perpet- 
uates an indefiniteness that seems to elude all efforts at 
gradation. With this array of handicaps to face, the task 
of suggesting a workable scheme whereby progress within the 
subject of high-school history can be secured seems an almost 
impossible one. However, the task is not" so formidable as it 
at first seems, for if school administrators can be convinced 
that there is such a thing as progression within the subject 
of history, they will be willing to remedy some of the present 
adverse conditions. 

In addition to the foregoing obstacles to the application of 
the principle of progress within the subject of history, there 
are certain attending difficulties which the teachers themselves 
will have to overcome. For example, the American Revolution 
is now commonly taught in both the junior and the senior 
high school. Suppose the same individual teaches this subject 
on both levels of instruction. Will he have the courage to go 
before the senior high-school class and present the same fact 
in the same way that he presented it to the class in the junior 
high school? 

Right here lies the crux of the problem of gradation in 
history. Exactly how should the history taught in the third 
or fourth years of the traditional high school differ from 
that taught in the seventh and eighth grades ; and how should 
the senior college work differ from that of the last year of the 
high school? The truth of the matter is that too often the 
second cycle makes little or no advance over the first, and 
the third not sufficient over the second. 

The measures necessary to solve all these perplexing 
difficulties are out of the reach of an individual teacher. 
Possibly in time our history courses will be organized with a 
view to taking care of this phase of the situation. That it is 
a problem has been recognized in many quarters. The History 
Teachers Association of the Middle States and Maryland 



98 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

gave considerable attention to it both in the 1906 and in the 
191 5 meetings. In the latter gathering it took the form of a 
consideration of the differentiation of history in the high 
school from history in the elementary school^ and of 
history in the college from history in the high school, 
illustrated by reference to the causes of the American 
Revolution. The papers presented on this occasion worked out 
in some detail the phases of the subject to be taught in each 
cycle. It is unnecessary to go into these proposals here. It 
should be said, however, that if a similar treatment of all the 
subjects in American history which appear in both the junior 
and the senior high-school cycle were at hand and as familiar 
to history teachers as, let us say, the report of the Committee of 
Seven, considerable progress would have been made in remedy- 
ing some notable defects in present-day history teaching.^ 

The solving of such a problem as the differentiation of 
history in the high school from history in the elementary 
school, and of history in the college from history in the high 
school, demands cooperative effort, hence cannot be worked out 
by the individual teacher. Since this is true, one might ask 
with propriety. What, then, can an individual teacher do to 
secure this much-to-be-desired progress within the subject of 
history? The answer afforded by this discussion to such a 
question is this : Any teacher can plan general and special 
methods of procedure sufficiently definite and so correctly 
graded as to secure progress within the subject when they are 
applied. Examples of what is meant here appear below in 
the statements of a general method of procedure in teaching 
American history in the junior and senior high school as well 
as similar statements for ancient and European history. 

1 Hedge, " Differentiation of the Elementary School History from that 
of the High School"; Dougherty, " Material and Treatment for a Senior 
Class in the High School " ; Spencer, " Material and Treatment for a College 
Class," all found in the 191 5 Proceedings of the Histoiy Teachers Association 
of the Middle States and Maiyland. See also " Differentiation in Treatment 
of the American Revolution in Elementary School, High School, and 
College," by A. W. Smith, in the 1906 Proceedings of the same association. 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 99 

Attaining Progress through General and Special 
Methods of ProceduSe 

In applying a method of procedure in junior high-school 
American history which purports to be definite enough to 
make possible the application of the principle of progress 
within this subject when it is studied again in the senior high 
school, the first thing necessary is to get the main divisions 
of tjie field before ithe class. This can be done inductively 
with the textbook in the hands of the children. If the textbook 
has a general organization, this can be examined and discussed 
and a tentative one proposed. In the course of a week or so 
the final organization can be determined along with specific 
names and date boundaries for each main division. 

The second step is to formulate in story form the main trend 
_of the history contained in each large division. In most 
cases it will be better for the teacher to tell this story to the 
class. It can be told in sections from day to day, accompanied 
by a retelling by the members of the class as their part of the 
advance lesson. When each pupil is able to tell the story 
from beginning to end, the next step in the general method of 
procedure may be taken. 

If the background of American history has been studied in 
the sixth or seventh grade, there will be need of but slight 
emphasis on the period of discovery and exploration. In 
fact, the story already learned could be so elaborated as to 
make any more work on this period unnecessary. However, 
since physical features and the Indians cannot be included 
in the story, some attention will need to be given to these 
two factors. Considerable time will be spent on the period 
from 1607 to 1763. A good organization for it is to deal with 
the English colonies in three groups down to about 1700, in- 
cluding a cross-section view of life and institutions in each 
group at the latter date. The progress of settlement from 
1700 to 1754 may be treated as one topic. After this has been 



100 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

concluded, French colonization may be taken from the begin- 
ning to 1754, after which a brief consideration of the French 
and Indian Wars will be in order. The study of the period 
will close with an intensive cross-section view of colonial life 
and institutions in 1763. A great deal of time may be profit- 
ably spent on this cross-section view. Comparison may be 
made with present-day conditions, and the work on the whole 
be made very practical and interesting. The period between 
1763 and 1789 may be treated much like the preceding one. 
The political thread running through it will be considerably 
elaborated as compared with what has been included in the 
overview already made. The major part of the time spent on 
this period will be devoted to a survey of the social, economic, 
and political conditions of the country just prior to 1787,' 
culminating in a study of the formation and ratification of 
the Constitution. 

Either of two methods of procedure may be followed after 
the year 1789. When the teacher has made sure that the 
pupils understand the main current of the history from this 
date to, let us say, 1829, certain phases of life running through 
the period may be studied in some detail. For example, the 
social progress and development, including a study of intel- 
lectual life, religious activities, social and moral betterment, 
home life of the people, and conditions of labor might be 
emphasized. This same procedure could be applied equally 
well to the periods from 1829 to 1865, from 1865 to 1898, 
and from 1898 to the present time. 

Such a method of procedure as proposed in the preceding 
paragraph would not serve equally well for all students of 
history. For those who expect to complete the junior high- 
school course such a method might be profitably followed ; 
but for those who may not be able to complete the course there 
is probably a better way. For these latter and for those who 
are in the industrial and commercial courses a good plan would 
be first to go over the main features of all the periods since 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT loi 

1789 and then to trace the history of a few important topics 
from their origin to their present condition. For example, the 
history of agriculture, manufacturing, labor systems, and the 
like could be traced from their simple beginnings in colonial 
times to their present-day complexities. Such a method would 
give the teacher all the freedom necessary to adapt the course 
to local conditions as well as to the interests and capacities 
of the children. In the working up of these topics the counter- 
chronological method of approach could no doubt be used as 
effectively as the chronological, and if the pupils have had a 
course in European history, there is no reason why the counter- 
chronological story should end on this side of the Atlantic. 

At the conclusion of the study of each period a more elabo- 
rate story of it should be recounted by the children, and at the 
end of the course the whole story of the history of the United 
States should be formulated with all the elaborateness that the 
class is able to make. The maps made during the year may 
be used in connection with the telling of this final story, the 
content of which will be determined by the sort of facts the 
teacher has emphasized as the course progressed from day 
to day. 

In the application of a method of procedure in the senior 
high-school American history which aims to be an advance 
over the foregoing, the first thing necessary "in the junior high'' 
school is to get the general organization of the field to be 
studied before the class. If this has been well done in the 
lower school, little time will be needed for it here, since it will 
be in the nature of a review. The same general divisions of 
the field for teaching purposes that were used in the junior 
high school are to be employed here. This means that the 
names and date boundaries of these divisions must be exactly 
the same in both schools. There is no more reason for senior 
high-school pupils learning new names for these divisions than 
for their learning new names for the continents and the funda- 
mental operations in arithmetic. 



102 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

After this preliminary work has been well done and each 
member of the class can give in a connected form an over- 
view of the entire field in the form of a story, it is time for 
the second step in the method herein outlined. This step 
should begin where the first left off, namely, with the present. 
Since one of the big aims of the course in American history 
is to give those pursuing it an understanding of the present, 
a survey of what is to be understood is essential. Such a 
survey will include the main features of our present social 
structure in order to discover what some of the things are 
that people need to know about and the historical knowledge 
necessary to understand them in their present form. While 
the results of this survey of our present social structure will 
not be exactly the same in any two localities, the following list 
taken from Bobbitt's What the Schools Teach and Might 
Teach certainly includes about all that any class will discover : 
sociological aspects of war, territorial expansion, race problems, 
tariff and free trade, transportation, money systems, our in- 
sular possessions, growth of population, trusts, banks and bank- 
ing, immigration, capital and labor, education, inventions, 
suffrage, centralization of government, strikes and lockouts, 
panics and business depressions, commerce, taxation, manu- 
facturing, labor unions, foreign commerce, agriculture, postal 
service, army, government control of corporations, municipal 
government, navy, factory labor, wages, courts of law, charities, 
crime, fire protection, roads and road transportation, news- 
papers and magazines, national defense, conservation of natural 
resources, liquor problems, parks and playgrounds, housing 
conditions, mining, health and sanitation, pensions, unemploy- 
ment, child labor, women in industry, cost of living, pure-food 
control, savings banks, water supply of cities, prisons, recre- 
ations and amusements, cooperative buying and selling, insur- 
ance, and hospitals. 

After the teacher and the class have made a list of topics 
for study similar to this one of Professor Bobbitt's, the ones 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 103 

most conspicuous in the life of their own community can be 
selected for intensive study. While the counter-chronological 
approach to each topic might be employed, it is probably 
more practical to use the chronological method. Granting 
that this latter method is used, the next thing in order is to 
make a working outline of the particular topic chosen for 
first consideration. The text in the hands of the students 
should be the chief reliance in making this working outline, 
and when it is finished a more complete one made by the 
teacher can be substituted for it. On the completion of all 
this preliminary work serious study of the topic under con- 
sideration can be undertaken. As many topics as the time 
devoted to the course will permit can be treated in this 
same manner. 

Another general method of procedure which could begapplied 
equally well in the teaching of American history in the senior 
high school is this : After the/general survey of the entire field 
to be covered and the special survey of the main features 
of our present-day social structure have been completed, some 
past structures of American society might be studied in detail 
in order to show how the problems of living were worked out 
in the different stages of our national life. Providing the 
material can be secured, the following periods in our history 
seem most worth analyzing : the period of Revolution and 
the Establishment of the American Nation, 1763-17 89; the 
period of Expansion and Conflict, 1829-1865 ; and the decade 
of the period of Reconstruction and Consolidation following 
1880. If at all possible a detailed cross-section view should 
be taken of the country at some time within each of these four 
periods. If this is not practicable, a general survey of the 
life of the people during each of these periods may be made, 
for which no material other than that found in the text is 
absolutely necessary. Of course the completeness of the sur- 
vey in each case will depend upon the amount and quality of 
the material at hand. 



104 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

In the survey of the period beginning with 1763, the colonies 
should be considered in a threefold group and in a twofold 
group ; the former consisting of the New England colonies, 
the middle colonies, and the southern colonies ; and the latter 
of the seacoast group and the back-country group. All phases 
of the life of the people in each of these groups should be 
considered. Comparisons and contrasts should be frequent, 
not only of one section with another but of each phase of 
colonial life with the same or with a similar phase of present- 
day life. 

In an analysis of the life in the country during the period 
between 1829 and 1865, the South, the West, and the East 
may be used as units. Such an analysis would yield in the East 
a transition from family-made to factory-made goods, the in- 
creased importance of a market for goods, the interrelations 
between this market and tariffs, moneys, transportation and 
communication, the greater specialization in diverse industries, 
social and humanitarian reforms, the movement of the popula- 
tion from rural to urban communities, and the beginnings of 
important educational reforms. In the South such things as 
specialization in one industry only, the self-sufficiency of each 
plantation worked by slave labor, the general control by the 
planter aristocracy, lack of adequate educational facilities, 
the narrow and meager existence of the upland people, and the 
evil effects of the factory system will come to the surface. 
The self-s|ifficiency of frontier life, the democratic spirit, man- 
hood suffrage, the movement in favor of public education, the 
need for adequate transportation and communication facilities, 
the varied industries of rural villages, and the demand for 
free land will be noticed in an analysis of the West. When all 
these analyses have been worked out, comparisons and con- 
trasts can be made with colonial times and present-day con- 
ditions as well. 

Generally speaking, an analysis of the life and activities 
of the country during the eighties would reveal a genera] 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 105 

shifting from rural to urban life and the effects of these 
changes upon labor ; a mining-camp frontier life in the West ; 
the industrial revolution spreading to include other goods 
besides textiles ; the coming of labor organizations ; the begin- 
nings of large industrial combinations ; the passing of the 
frontier ; the coming of extreme poverty and wealth ; the 
beginnings of government regulation; the great interest in 
railroad building ; the scientific spirit in agriculture ; important 
educational reforms ; and the like. When this period is finished, 
some time should be spent in comparing and contrasting the 
social structure of the country at the time each survey was 
made. The remainder of the time devoted to the course can 
be profitably spent on enlarging the general overview of 
American history which each student is supposed to have when 
he enters the course. If this part of the work and the four 
surveys herein mentioned are done well, the students will leave 
the course with a rather definite understanding of our complex 
present-day life and its historical antecedents. 

In concluding this phase of the discussion, it should be said< 
that where a teacher in the senior high school is certain that 
the pupils in his class were not taught according to the method 
proposed above for the junior high school, the practical thing 
for him to do is to use the junior high-school procedure for 
his senior high-school class. There is no use in trying to apply 
a method which assumes that a certain thing has been well 
done unless that thing has really been accomplished. The fact 
in the case is that when pupils in the junior high school have 
been taught by the chapter-by-chapter and page-by-page text- 
book method, the method herein proposed for them would be 
quite an advance when used in the senior high school, and its 
use would be in conformity with the principle of progress 
within the subject. The chief points to make in this whole 
matter are (i) teachers on each level of instruction should 
have a rather definite general method of procedure; (2) each 
should know the method used by the others; and (3) when 



io6 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

American history is taught in the senior high school, it should 
be on the senior and not on the junior high-school level. 

Before we pass to another phase of the matter of progress 
within the subject of history, a general method of procedure^ 
for two other fields of history ordinarily taught in the senior 
high school will be given. First, let us direct our attention 
to the field of ancient history. 

In ancient history the first thing to do is to work out with 
the class, text in hand, the general organization of the field 
to be used in teaching the subject. Since Greek and Roman 
history usually come in different semesters, the organization 
of the Roman field could be left until the beginning of the 
second semester's work. After each general division has been 
determined upon, named, and located by pages within the text, 
and some general notion of the big movements in each division 
has been grasped by the class, attention may be centered upon 
the first of these general divisions. In working out an outline 
to use in teaching it, use the text in about the same manner 
in which it was employed in establishing the general organiza- 
tion. The outline thus worked out, as well as all work previ- 
ously done, should be placed in the permanent notebook. On 
completing the first teaching division of the subject, the next 
one should be taken up and treated similarly. However, before 
leaving any particular division, the class should devote some 
time to viewing it as a whole in the light of all that has been 
learned about it. Such a view will include listing and learn- 
ing, if they have not been previously learned, the dates- 
events to be remembered, and the personages to be known 
which fall within the division. It will also include a review of 
the main features of the map that has been made during the 
study of the division. 

This general method of procedure in teaching ancient his- 
tory takes for granted that the teacher has a general and 
special organization of the field already worked out before the 
course begins. It also assumes that he knows just what dates 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 107 

and events are to be known, what personages are to be 
identified, and what maps are to be made in each division on 
beginning the course, or at least before serious work on it 
commences. The method is appHcable w^hether one is teaching 
ancient history down to about 800 a.d. or European history 
from the earliest time to 1648 or 1700. It h9,s previously been 
briefly mentioned in the discussion of the textbook method. 

In thfe teaching of medieval and modern history or European 
history since about 1648 or 1700 the same general plan can 
be followed as in ancient history. First, the general organi- 
zation of the field for teaching purposes will be established 
with the textbook open before the class. After this is done 
it wilLbe possible to formulate in story form the main cur- 
rents of European history since 800 a.d. or 1648, as the case 
may be. In practice the teacher had better tell this story 
to the class, demanding a retelling by each member in so far as 
this is possible. The story could be written with profit by each 
student and placed in his permanent notebook for future use. 

When this preliminary work has been thoroughly done, the 
first period will be taken up and treated as the first period in 
ancient history was treated, with the additional requirement 
that each student know a much longer story of it than the orig- 
inal one. Each succeeding period will be similarly treated, 
emphasis being laid on the dates and events to be known, the 
personages to be identified, and the maps to be made in each 
period. Time enough should be left for a long story of the 
entire field to be told at the end of the course. 

If the teacher has sufficient library facilities, there is 
another method of procedure in teaching the two fields under 
discussion here which could be effectively employed, especially 
if the desire is to focus the attention of the class on the 
historical movements necessary for an intelligent understanding 
of present-day European life and activities. Using the method 
contemplated here, the teacher would begin the course just as 
when using the preceding one, that is, by getting the general 



io8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

organization of the field to be taught before the class, using 
the text as a basis ; the short story of the entire field would also 
be told by the teacher and learned by the students. In the 
case of the traditional medieval and modern history, it would 
be better to touch lightly at the beginning of the course on the 
periods to be covered the second semester, reserving this se- 
mester for an intensive application of the method herein con- 
tem,plated. The procedure outlined above for the entire field of 
medieval and modern history should be used the first semester. 
Now, after this necessary preliminary work has been com- 
pleted, the second step in the application of the method under 
consideration can be taken. This includes an examination of 
the main features of the social structure of the leading Euro-'^ 
pean countries in and after 1914. England, Russia, France, 
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Balkan States are the 
countries which should receive chief attention in this survey, 
which should cover topics like the following in so far as they 
apply to the countries surveyed : chief industries, government, 
colonies and dependencies, religion, education, poverty and 
wealth, transportation facilities, the land and its resources, the 
people, rural and urban life, autocracy, democracy, and social- 
ism. When this work is completed, either of two methods of 
procedure might be followed. One would be to take up a 
historical consideration of each of the leading European coun- 
tries separately, beginning with either France or England and 
emphasizing the historical development of the topics included 
in the preliminary survey. After each nation has been viewed 
in this manner, some time should be spent in a comparative 
study, with a view to discovering the underlying causes of the 
World War.i 

1 H. E. Tuell, "The Study of Nations," History Teacher's Magazine, VIII, 
264 ff., for an excellent outline for studying each of the nations mentioned 
above. For an elaborate discussion of the same subject see Tuell, T/ie 
Study of Nations — An Experiment in Social Editcatiojt, Houghton Mifflin 
Company, 1919. This work contains additional outlines for studying China, 
Japan, the Philippine Islands, Turkey, and the Balkan States. 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 109 

Another way of proceeding after making the preliminary 
survey of the leading European nations is to focus the atten- 
tion on historical movements relating to the whole of Europe 
rather than to center it on individual nations. In the applica- 
tion of the scheme such topics as the rise of nationality, 
the struggle for constitutional government, industrial changes, 
the socialistic movement, economic theory and reform, the 
doctrine of evolution and the enthusiasm for natural science, 
educational reforms, and religious conditions would be treated 
historically as they apply to the whole of Europe. In other 
words, in teaching the course the attention would be focused 
on large movements and transformations as they apply to the 
whole of Europe rather than on individual nations as in the 
case mentioned above. For example, in the study of the social- 
istic movement, the general organization projected at the 
beginning of the course would serve as the background, and 
the progress and conditions of the rhovement would be consid- 
ered in each country during the various periods included in 
the general organization of the entire field. It should be said 
in passing that both of these last-mentioned methods are 
applications of the .topical method described in a previous 
chapter, the topics in the one case being the various nations 
surveyed and in the other the big movements applying to 
Europe as a whole. 

So far in this discussion but one angle of the problem of 
progress within the subject of history has been considered, 
namely, securing progress through a general method of pro- 
cedure for the different levels of instruction. The problem one 
must now face is how to secure progress from year to year in 
the junior or senior high school. The answer to the question is 
this : Progress within the subject of history in either of these 
schools must be secured by what might be termed special 
requirements and specific objectives as well as set ways of 
covering the various phases of the work in each year history is 
taught. The following outline will illustrate what is meant here : 



no THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

AN OUTLINE OF PROGRESSIVE REQUIREMENTS FOR SENIOR 
HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY CLASSES 

I. First year of the senior high school (loth year). 

1. Recitation by topic. 

a. Pupils present the facts in a one-minute or two-minute 

oral recitation. 

b. Pupils answer interpretative and review questions put 

by the teacher. 

2. Assignments. 

a. Full outline of the work given by teacher at first with 

definite instructions relative to its preparation. 

b. Later, student may make his own outline after consider- 

able attention has been given to such work during 
the progress of the course. 

3. Supplementary reading to include : 

a. An account paralleling that of the text. 

b. A short special treatment of some topic in the lesson. 

c. Short biographies. 

d. Limited number of source readings. 

4. Report on supplementary reading in the form of : 

a. Oral recitation of from two to three minutes in length 

on special topics. 

b. Outline, synopsis, or summary handed in. 

c. Contributions during the class period based on parallel 

readings. 

5. Permanent notebook exercises, such as : 

a. One-paragraph themes on topics related to the daily 

work. 

b. Short biographical sketches of. representative historical 

personages. 

c. Outlines given by the teacher or made by the pupil. 

d. Concrete exercises based on source material. 

e. Pictures and edited clippings. 

/. Copied illustrations and drawings. 

g. Tabulations and comparisons. 

h. Outline maps filled in. 

i. Graphic representations made by the pupil. 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT iii 

6. Oral recitations of from twenty to twenty-five minutes 

on important periods of history after they have been 
studied in class. 

7. One-minute or two-minute oral reports on current topics. 
II. Second year of the senior high school (nth year). 

1. Topical recitation involving on the part of the pupil : 

a. A rather elaborate and continuous treatment of a topic. 

b. An application of his knowledge through answers to the 

teacher's questions involving causes, effects, and 
interpretations. 

2. Assignments. 

" a. Usually in the form of a guidance outline based on text. 
b. Definite outside reading to elaborate the guidance outline. 

3. Supplementary reading to include : 

a. An account paralleling that of the text. 

b. A fuller parallel account. 

c. A special treatment of a topic connected with the 

recitation of the day. 

d. Source extracts. 

e. Current literature. 

4. Reports on supplementary reading in the form of : 

a. Contributions during class discussion. 

b. Oral recitations of from five to fifteen minutes in length 

on some one topic. 

c. Outline handed in. 

5. Permanent notebook exercises, such as : 

a. One-page or two-page themes on topics closely related to 

the daily work. 

b. Synopses of brief selections of source material. 

c. Answers to search questions on secondary or source 

material. 

d. Characterizations and summaries of periods or move- 

ments. 

e. Outline maps filled in. 

/. Tabulations and comparisons. 

g. Synopses or outlines or reports made in class by other 

pupils. 
h. Notes on lectures given by the teacher. 
i. Reports on contemporary events. 



112 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

6. Oral recitations extending over the whole of the recitation 

on important periods previously studied in class. 

7. Oral report on current topics, based on the reading of a 

number of stories of the same event. 
III. Third year of the senior high school (12th year). 

1. Topical recitation with emphasis on longitudinal treatment. 

2. Assignments. 

a. Usually in the form of a guidance outline of each topic 

studied. 

b. Definite references to read on each phase of the topic. 

3. Supplementary reading to include : 

a. An account paralleling that of the text. 

b. A fuller parallel account. 

c. A special treatment of a topic or period. 

d. Source material. 

e. Biographies. 

/. Current literature. 

4. Report on supplementary reading in the form of : 

a. Contributions during the class discussion. 

b. Oral reports on topics specially assigned. 

c. Cards handed in showing kind and amount of reading 

done. 

5. Temporary notebook exercises to include : 

a. Outline of work given by the teacher. 

b. Voluntary notes on reading done. 

c. Sketch maps for use in daily recitation. 

d. Summaries made in class. 

e. Notes on lectures given by the teacher and reports made 

by other members of the class. 
/. A few outline maps filled in. 
g. Bibliographical material. 
h. Charts, graphs, and similar materials. 

6. Oral recitation extending over one or more recitations on 

important periods previously studied in class. 

7. An elaborate term paper, prepared according to the follow- 

ing plan : 
a. Select subject not later than the -second week of the 
semester, the selection to be voluntary from a list 
proposed by the teacher. 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 113 

h. Class sets dates for the reading to be finished, the 
general outline, the first copy, and the final copy to 
be handed in. 

c. Spend some time each week in discussing the progress 

made, difficulties encountered, and the technic of 
footnote references. Develop inductively a set of 
rules for the latter. 

d. Each pupil hands in once a week his notes on the read- 

ing done for his paper. These notes to be kept by the 
teacher and returned when enough reading has been 
completed. 

e. The week following the return of the notes an outUne 

based on them is to be made by each pupil. This 

is approved by the teacher and returned. 
/. The first copy of the paper comes in on the date 

previously set by the class. 
g. If necessary, the first copy is returned and a final one 

comes in on the date previously set. 
h. Papers as a rule are not to be read in class, since much 

of the material will have been used during the 

progress of the course. 

8. During the second semester a paper should be written on 

some current political, economic, social, or civic topic. 
This work should be done rather independently. 

9. Previous training in reading and reporting on current topics 

should be utilized. The current problem work should be 
carried on almost exclusively in this manner. 

A mere glance through this outline reveals the fact that 
progress is secured through increased ability to do certain 
things relative to the work rather than by mere knowledge as 
is the case in some subjects. He would be a pupil of rather 
unusual ability who could enter the third year of history and do 
the work according to the method outlined above who had not 
had the training secured from the first two years' work as 
proposed. For example, in the writing of the term paper the 
student applies all his previous training in historical reading 
and note-taking as well as the technic of footnote references 



114 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

which he has gradually mastered. It would also be quite 
difficult for the newcomer into the third-year class to recite 
consecutively and logically for two class periods without notes 
unless he had had the training which the first two years of the 
history work aim to give. Neither could a newcomer do the 
type of outside reading demanded in the third-year course 
without the ability developed by the two years of training in 
such work. And, finally, it would be an extraordinary student 
who could prepare independently the type of paper required 
during the last semester of the history work, as well as do the 
type of daily work demanded in this course. 

It is quite possible that in the hands of some teachers the 
method of procedure outlined above would become stereotyped 
and formal, thus making the work lifeless arid of little value. 
It is also quite possible that the progressive standards of at- 
tainment demanded in each year might be so vague and 
indefinite in the mind of a teacher that a pupil could move 
along through the course without progressing in his ability 
to do the things which the outline demands. To overcome 
these potential difficulties the teacher will need only to vary the 
recitation procedure as the occasion requires and let the class 
set the standard according to the exactions made by the outline. 
It is the writer's conviction that the outline itself presents 
sufficient opportunities for variation to prevent the plan from 
becoming formal and lifeless. 

There are two other ways by which progress within the 
subject of history could be secured. Neither of them, how- 
ever, could be worked out and applied by a teacher working 
alone, hence they are merely mentioned here because the 
discussion has in mind presenting something definite and 
concrete for the individual teacher. These two ways are 
(i) by a close organization of topics presented in two or more 
of the cycles so that a higher type of ability would be 
demanded on each level ; ( 2 ) by an organization and selection 
of the topics in each cycle so that there will be little or no 



PROGRESS WITHIN THE SUBJECT 115 

repetition, thus making it possible for the child in the seventh 
grade to study one set of topics relative to the Revolutionary 
War, the high-school senior another set, and the college student 
another, all so organized that the second cycle could not be 
done successfully without a knowledge of the first, and the 
last without a knowledge of the first two. While we are 
waiting for cooperative effort to secure progress through these 
last two methods, the individual teacher will have to secure 
this much-to-be-desired result through his method of procedure 
day by day and term by term, 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Hedge, Dougherty, and Spencer. "The Differentiation of History in 
the Elementary School, and of History in College from History 
in the High School, Illustrated by Reference to the Causes of the 
American Revolution," Proceedings of the Association of History 
Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland, No. 13 (i9i5),pp. 54 ff. 

Johnson, Henry. "The Problem of Grading History," in The Teaching 
of History in the Elementary and Seco7idary Schools, chap. ii. 
The Macmillan Company, igij. 

Smith, A. W. "Differentiation in Treatment of the American Revolution 
in Elementary School, High School, and College," Proceedings of 
the Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Mary- 
land (March, 1906) , pp. 29 ff. 

Smith, E. E. "Gradation of High-School Work in History," Ohio His- 
tory Teachers' Journal, Bulletin No. 3 (November, 1916), pp. 103 ff. 

TuELL, Harriet E. "The Study of Nations — An Experiment," History 
Teacher's Magazine, VHI (1917), 2642. 

TuELL, Harriet E. The Study of Nations — An Experiment in Social 
Education. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1919. 

Washburn, G. A. "Gradation of High-School Work in History," Ohio 
History Teachers' Journal, Bulletin No. 3 (November, i9i6),pp. 95 ff. 



V 



CHAPTER VI 

WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 

Written work in one form or other occupies a very prominent 
place in present-day high-school teaching. In the foreign lan- 
guages, written exercises are the rule rather than the exception ; 
in the natural and physical sciences, experiments are carefully 
written up and filed away for safekeeping in the permanent 
notebook ; in English, short written themes are sometimes 
required daily and longer ones weekly ; and in history, out- 
lines, synopses, summaries, and other forms of written exer- 
cises are required in all phases of the work. This prevalent 
use of formal written work in present-day high-school teaching 
makes the subject of prime importance to teachers, and inas- 
much as the history teachers have a function to perform in the 
matter somewhat different from that of the teachers in other 
departments, it becomes necessary for them to give the sub- 
ject especial consideration. 

While the English teacher in the required written work is 
most concerned with the problem of teaching how to write, 
the history teacher is interested in the proper application of 
what the student already knows about the fundamentals of 
written English. This does not mean, however, that the his- 
tory teacher will neglect the matter of training in note-taking, 
a type of work much used in history teaching and of sufficient 
importance to deserve special attention. 

Training in History Note-Taking 

It may be necessary at the outset for the history teacher to 
emphasize the need and value of training in note-taking in the 
ordinary walk of life. He can do this by calling the attention 
of his pupils to the practical value and actual use of this 

ii6 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 117 

training in present-day business and professional activities. The 
trained physician works out from his reference books the 
treatment of cases which are peculiar and tabulates the results 
in a form which he can use in his tentative and final diag- 
noses ; the minister each week works up sermons and ad- 
dresses, in the process of which much use is made of notes; 
business men are each year developing more and more complete 
and elaborate systems of recording, classifying, and unifying 
the various items of their business ; the farmer systematizes 
his methods of feeding and breeding hogs and cattle, crop 
rotations, and the like, all of which are the outcome of careful 
and methodical reading and recording the results of this 
reading along with his own experience ; the housekeeper also 
applies training in note-taking by arranging in an orderly 
manner the results of her reading in books, magazines, and 
journals and using the knowledge thus acquired in running 
her household. In truth the great majority of persons in 
civilized pursuits have need of and actually use training in 
note-taking. Even high-school history students sometimes 
discover their need of and the value of such training. A 
graduate of an eastern high school, subsequently becoming a 
traveling salesman, wrote his history teacher to the effect 
that of all his high-school training he considered that which he 
attained in his history course of most value to him, for it was 
the actual and systematic training in note-taking received in 
the history classes .that he was daily using in planning his 
routes, organizing his territory, and classifying his customers. 
Of course, this is an extreme case, but it illustrates the point 
under consideration here. 

Before the history teacher can guide any effective work in 
note-taking in his subject, he will need to clarify his own 
thinking as to the purposes and uses of the notes which he is 
to have his pupils take. Note-taking as a form of busy work in . 
history teaching is intolerable. Historical notes must be for 
some specific intent and subsequently used. Some justifiable 



Ii8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

purposes are : ( i ) to give actual practice in the application 
of knowledge acquired in the English classes ; ( 2 ) to teach 
pupils how to perform the types of written work which are 
peculiar to history; and (3) to give the pupils the opportunity 
to use historical terms and expressions which should become 
habitual. The uses to be made of the notes taken from day 
to day may be spoken of as specific and general. The former 
includes such uses as for the next recitation, the writing 
of a long or short theme, the making of an oral report, and 
reviewing for examinations. The general uses are to preserve 
a record for possible future use, to fix the subject in mind 
by the effort required to make the notes, and to preserve a 
record of the reading done outside of the text. If the teacher 
can convince his pupils as the work moves along from day to 
day that the notes they are taking are and will be of real 
and actual value to them, note-taking will assume an effective- 
ness unknown in a class where the pupils feel that they are 
doing the written work to satisfy the whimsical desires of a 
pedantic teacher. 

The history teacher may or may not need to give attention 
to the technic of note-taking, such as form, punctuation, the 
meaning of guidance and information outlines, synopsis, sum- 
rnary, and digest, and the use of abbreviations. In an ideal 
situation the pupils would learn this technic in English and 
apply it in history. When such nearly ideal conditions do 
not exist, the history teacher will need to give some attention 
both to the technic of ' note-taking and to its application. 
In making his plans to teach this work, he will be materially 
aided by such books as Seward's Note-Taking, Kitson's How 
to use your Mind, and Slater's Freshman Rhetoric. The 
first-named of these books, as the title suggests, is devoted 
entirely to the subject; each of the last two has a chapter 
devoted to note-taking. 

After going through the foregoing or similar material in 
order to fix in his own mind certain points relative to the 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 119 

technic of note-taking, the teacher will be ready to give 
actual assistance to his pupils along this line. Some of the 
practical things that he can do for them are (i) give them 
actual training in the making of outlines, summaries, and 
briefs, in the taking of direct quotations, and in paraphrasing ; 
(2) afford opportunities for a great amount of actual practice 
in doing the various types of written work used in carrying out 
the daily routine; (3) furnish occasions for practice in taking 
notes on lectures given by himself and reports made by the 
pupils ; (4) develop and decide upon a footnote-reference 
technic to be used in writing long themes and term reports. 
Not all of these, however, should be attempted in any one 
semester. They are listed in the order best to follow in 
carrying them out. 

In giving actual training in the making of outlines, sum- 
maries, and briefs and in the taking of direct quotations the 
text should be used as the basis. Since the making of an 
outline is relatively an easy matter, instruction and practice 
in it should precede all other work of this nature. A little 
time devoted to the problem every day will soon result in con- 
siderable efficiency. At first the work will take the form of 
a cooperative effort, the teacher and pupils working together 
with books open. After the pupils begin to see what a guid- 
ance outline really is they can be assigned certain portions 
of the text to outline from day to day. Two or three of these 
outlines may be placed on the board and used as a basis for 
discussing the matter in class. As soon as some ability in 
the making of a guidance outline is attained attention should 
be centered upon the information outline. The same method 
of procedure may be followed in this work as was followed in 
teaching how to make a guidance outline. 

The foregoing is likewise a good method of teaching what is 

meant by summaries and briefs, and in teaching how to 

' determine what is worth quoting. The text will often contain 

concrete examples of summaries. When it does they can be 



120 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

studied and their chief characteristics noted. Since a brief is 
an information outline considerably expanded, it might be 
approached through this channel. Some of the information 
outlines previously made might well be expanded into briefs. 
Paraphrasing and taking direct quotations are closely related. 
One might think of the first as saying in one's own words 
the gist of what has been said by another ; while the second, 
of course, is taking the exact words, punctuation and all, 
which a writer uses. Training in both of these should first 
be given with books open ; later applications should be made 
first with textbook m-aterial, and still later in connection with 
collateral reading. 

Actually writing a number of examples of the various types 
of written work is necessary on the part of the pupil in order 
to make sure that he can apply his training in note-taking. 
Inasmuch as this phase of the work is so closely related to 
that of training in note-taking, it may be dismissed without 
further comment. Taking notes on lectures given by the 
teacher and on special reports made in the class by individual 
students, however, is a different matter and should receive con- 
siderable attention in class exercises before actual practice in 
it is begun. One good way to begin is for the teacher to 
prepare a few well-organized lectures on topics directly related 
to the daily work. At first it may be best to place on the 
blackboard a guidance outline of the lecture ; later the pupils 
will be expected to discover the main and subordinate points 
as the lecture proceeds. After a few exercises of this nature, 
individual pupils may be asked to make reports to the 
class on topics closely related to the work of the day. In 
beginning this work it may be best to have before the class a 
brief outline of what the pupil is going to say to serve as 
a guide in note-taking. The notes taken on these reports 
should be incorporated into the general outline of the lesson 
for the day, which the pupil in the most cases will have 
before him. 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 121 

While some attention should be given to footnote-reference 
technic as the history work proceeds from semester to semester, 
what is meant by developing and deciding upon a footnote- 
reference technic to use in writing long themes and term re- 
ports should not be attempted until late in the student's career 
in the high-school history department. This work should be 
done in connection with the writing of a term paper, the details 
of which are considered in a subsequent chapter. 

/ Types of Formal Written Work 

The types of formal written work to be considered here 
are outlines, briefs, short themes on historical topics, im- 
aginary diaries, imaginary letters and editorials, notes on 
lectures and reports, digests or abstracts of collateral reading, 
direct quotations, comparative statements, bibliographies, sum- 
maries, and brief statements relating to the life and work of 
historical personages. As the student passes through the work 
outlined in the entire field of high-school history, he should 
be given an opportunity to do some formal written work along 
each of these lines. This work should be marked by the 
teacher, and the results should be incorporated into the scheme 
for determining final grades. 

If at all possible, concrete examples of the various types of 
formal written work should be shown to the class. By keepn 
ing a few of the best representatives of each type written from 
year to year the teacher will soon have an abundance of this 
kind of illustrative material at his command. To make sure 
that the beginning teacher will have at least some of this con- 
crete material, a few examples are included here. These 
include an imaginary diary, two short themes, an imaginary 
editorial, and some imaginary letters. The reader will observe 
that some of the examples contain mistakes both in history 
and in English. The experienced teacher, however, will under- 
stand the appearance of the errors when he knows that the 
examples represent the first efforts of the writers. 



122 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



DIARY OF THE PRINCESS MARY 



Windsor 
Castle 

England Year 
of 1475. 



Paris France 
In the Year 
1509. 



I, the Princess Mary, sister to the reigning king, 
Henry VIII, and daughter of the house of Tudor, 
have resolved to keep a diary, mainly to set down in 
black and white the evil doings of my burly brother, 
"The King." 

During this month he and his "butcher" Wolsey 
have taken it into their heads to make the King head 
of the church as well as of the state. For, thus only 
will our sovereign be able to divorce honest, homely 
Catherine, and marry foolish little Anne Boleyn. I 
called Wolsey a "butcher" for I utterly despise the 
fellow and his father was a butcher. But I, for my 
own sake, must treat him royally. For I am near 
exhausted trying to keep Henry's mind from the "Fool- 
King" Louis of France, whom he (Henry) is planning 
to match me with for a few miserly pounds of gold. 
I swear by my country and my father I will never 
marry that "old man," so if Henry becomes too 
forcible, I must get the help of Wolsey who stands 
in high favor. 

The scandal of it ! Henry has denounced the Pope 
and placed himself at the head of the church. Poor 
Catherine has sworn she is, and has always been, 
Henry's faithful wife. But he scorns her and is to 
be quietly divorced from_ her and as quietly married 
to Anne. 0, me ! He has also begun preparations 
with France, but I do not fear, for they will never be 
accomplished. 

I am writing this in France. Even with all my 
courage, "that villain" married me to Louis. 

But Henry VIII of England is dead and duly 
buried, also poor Wolsey who died in disgrace and de- 
spair having served his King too well instead of his 
maker. Louis, of France is also upon his last bed 
and Francis II is already planning to marry me, but 
I'll not be kept in misery any longer than to see 
Louis buried in French soil. 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 123 



Windsor 
Castie 
Eng. In the 
Year 1554. 



Surrey 
England In 
the Year 1558. 



Windsor 
Castle in the 
Year 1587. 



Edward VI, Henry's son, reigns in England, and has 
made the country protestant. Nothing is talked of but 
burning stakes, scaffolds and religion. Thousands of 
Catholics are being put to death every day and 
everybody's life is in danger but for all this, let 
me see my beloved "Windsor" once again. 

Home once again, and how good that looks to one 
who has longed by night and day for it. Many things 
have happened since my last writing. I am a happy 
dowager for the King of France has passed away and 
with him Edward of England. This year has marked a 
great discovery. All honor goes to Spain, as one 
"Columbus" has discovered a new land westward. 
England under Edward VI has sent one, John Cabot 
and his son, to affirm these tales. He is expected to 
report tomorrow of his discoveries. 

Upon the death of Edward, his sister, Mary, be- 
came Queen and with her came back the old religion. 
The persecution of the Protestants has begun in the 
terrible manner like to Edward's in persecuting the 
Cathohcs. 

Now again we have a new ruler. Mary, the bloody, 
as her subjects have named her, has passed away, died 
of a broken heart. And Elizabeth, my niece, daughter 
of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, has been crowned 
Queen. Elizabeth is twenty-five years of age and 
swears she will never marry. As Mary undid the 
religious works of Henry and Edward so has Elizabeth 
undone the work of Mary. So that again Cathohcs 
are being put to death and suffering in the "Tower." 

Today the subjects of England are in a great tumult. 
For hundreds are setting sail for Holland exihng 
themselves on account of their religion. They are 
known as Puritans and Separatists, people who adopt 
Protestantism as a whole but not each separate 
part. May they be satisfied and contented in their 
adopted homes. 

The fife of "Mary, Queen of the Scots" was ended 
today. Elizabeth has succeeded in this, as in other 



124 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

things. And so the poor Scottish Queen will trouble 
her no more. May EUzabeth not be judged as she 
has judged. 
England The death of Mary has led to the closing of Spanish 

July i8, 158S. friendship. Tomorrow England's fleet of eighty ves- 
sels meets the awful Spanish Armada in British waters. 
May God grant that England comes out victorious. 
England Eight nights ago the Armada was discovered by 

Juy27, 15 ■ j.]jg watchman on the English cHffs. And as it swept 
up the Channel seven miles in width from tip to 
tip of horn. The British ships only eighty in number 
advanced to meet it. And for seven long days and 
nights England has fought like mad. The seventh 
night five ships were sent amongst the Spanish boats 
and they were put to flight. England is mistress of 
the seas. God save the Queen ! 

The foregoing is an exact copy of what a third-year high- 
school girl wrote in connection with her work in English 
history. Of course the chronology is not quite straight 
throughout, but why object to such a minor defect in the 
first copy ? How could a teacher hit upon a better way of 
determining whether a student was or was not keeping his 
chronology straight? The girl certainly got into the spirit 
of the history of the times and succeeded in saying what she 
had in mind in correct, concrete, and picturesque English. 

The following is an example of a short theme written by a 
second-year high-school girl in connection with her work in 
Roman history. 

FOOD AND UTENSILS — ROMAN 

Private Life of The Romans ate an awful lot of fruit because it 
joh^s™^~ grew so plentiful in Rome. The reason it grew so 
plentiful there is because Rome is situated in a warm 
chmate where there is plenty of rain and therefore 
there is good soil. They also had garden produce 
such as asparagus, beans, beets, cabbages and etc. 
The potato and tomato most highly prized by us was 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 125 

unknown to the Romans. For meat the Romans ate 
beef, pork and goatflesh and also other domestic fowls 
and fish. Oysters were then just as common as they 
are today. Wheat was the staple grain grown for 
food. In the earhest times the grain was not ground 
but merely pounded in a mortar. The meal was then 
mixed with water and made into a sort of porridge, 
something Hke oatmeal. The grinding in the later 
times was done in a mill worked by a horse. After the 
grain was ground into flour, it was made into bread 
and sold at the bakeries. Next in importance of the 
wheat came the olive. These were eaten when ripe 
and were preserved in various ways. They also made 
oil from them. There were plenty of grapes in Rome 
and they were used mostly for making wine. This wine 
was made and stored away sometimes for centuries. 
The Romans ate three times a day as we do now. The 
Romans did not have near so many utensils as we 
have. They had large mixing bowls and drinking cups. 
Their spoons were very queer. They had long handles 
on them. They did not have any forks, but they had 
something with two prongs on it they used sometimes 
to pick up things with.^ 

This theme was profusely illustrated, making the work on the 
whole very concrete. The history teacher can find little or no 
fault with history in it. Not so much, however, can be said for 
the English. Here is a splendid example of good history and 
poor English. In such a case it would surely be asking too 
much of the history teacher to iron out all the English defects. 
If such a demand were made, it would mean abandonment of 
the history in favor of English, which does not seem fair when 
it is more likely that this girl would get in the course of her 
high-school education twice as much exposure to English as 
to history. 

1 Written by a member of one of the high schools in New York City. 
A student in the same school also wrote the preceding example. 



12 6 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

The following is another example of a short historical 
theme. In it one finds rather bad history and good English. 
On a careful grading this theme would probably be graded 
lower on history than the foregoing one, even though there is 
no comparison between the two in the matter of English. 

THE CROWNING OF CHARLEMAGNE 

All was silent. The great bell of the church of St. Peter in 
Rome, on Christmas day in 800 a.d., tolled the hour of worship, 
and in pairs, solitary, and in parties, the people swarmed into the 
great cathedral. One by one in their bright colored garments and 
with picturesque faces they asked blessing of the Pope, who sat 
at the front of the church on a huge, beautiful velvet chair, mounted 
on a tall platform. To each he bowed and they, in their turns, 
took places and prayed. 

Suddenly a loud, high call sounded outside, and a large man 
with splendid physique and handsome face, with a long flowing 
beard of copper color, entered the church and knelt. He was 
simply dressed in bronze colored gown, fashioned with designs of 
dragons fighting, and wore on his head a soft white cap from 
which a long streamer extended down his back nearly to the 
floor. As he knelt there on the soft red cushion, with the sun, 
which streamed through the magnificent stained glass window, 
shining on his burnished copper hair, making it seem like an 
immense crown of gold, and with the soft lights from the various 
colored torches and candles of the church bringing out the simple- 
ness yet striking appearance of his gown, one knew that he was a 
nobleman, strong and brave. He knelt for several minutes and 
then, looking neither to left nor right, proceeded down the aisle, 
two men following him carrying his sword and rich velvet robe. 

As he came to the Pope, he raised his eyes to Heaven and 
crossed himself. Then falling on his knees and kissing the Pope's 
gorgeous robe he asked for blessing. At once the Pope recognized 
him. It was Charlemagne, the Great Emperor of the world. As 
he bent his head in prayer, the Pope drew forth a magnifi- 
cently made crown of gold, set with diamonds and gold carving 
and studded with many other precious stones. Placing it on 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 127 

Charlemagne's head, he stood up, and, in a loud clear voice, cried 
"Long live Charles Augustus, Emperor of the Romans." 

The people in the church echoed and re-echoed the words and 
hundreds of voices were heard outside of the church singing 
and shouting. So Charlemagne was crowned on Christmas day, and 
the Roman empire of the West, which had fallen more than three 
hundred years before, was now restored.^ 

The two following examples, an editorial and some letters, 
were written by members of a senior class in American his- 
tory .^ They show that it is possible to get a combination of 
correct history and satisfactory English. 

1835 Boston, Massachusetts 

AN ABOLITIONIST EDITORIAL BY WILLIAM LLOYD 
GARRISON 

Just fifty-nine years ago our fathers announced to the world 
their Declaration of Independence, based on the self-evident truths 
of human equality and rights. This document appealed to arms 
for its defense, and by arms it was admirably defended. Today 
a condition exists which surpasses by far any which our fathers 
resisted. Their grievances were trifles compared with the wrongs 
and sufferings of negro slaves. Almost three score years ago men 
fought and died for Liberty. Today their own sons grind human 
flesh beneath their heels for money. A new enterprise, the abolition 
of slavery, is one without which that of our fathers is incomplete. 

Our nation is bound to repent at once, to let the oppressed go 
free, to admit them to all the rights and privileges of others for 
many reasons. 

If there are any inalienable rights, liberty is undoubtedly one of 
them. To hold that men can be excluded from the beneficent prin- 
ciples of free government because they are inferior to other men is 
a doctrine which strikes at the basis of free government in America. 
No man has the right to enslave his brother, no matter what his 
color may be, and no length of bondage can invalidate man's claims 
to himself. Slavery outrages the fundamental law of civilization. 

1 Cole, "Visualizing History," Edtication, XXXIV, 503 f. 

2 Taught by H. C. Hill, The University of Chicago High School. 



12,8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

It also makes nought the teachings of religion. Who is it that 
is authorized by the Almighty God to shut the negro from the 
Golden Rule, from the building up of his own character through 
the grace of God ? If the negro is a hopeless pagan, incapable of 
civilization and of virtue, his presence is an unspeakable curse to 
the community. If he is a man who could respond to the divine 
truths, who made the white man his keeper? 

Africa might be held responsible for the low morals of the 
slave, but it cannot be contradicted that slavery denies both 
Christianity and civilization when it breaks up famihes. How 
many mothers have seen their babies torn from their arms 
and sold to hard-eyed masters ! And husbands and wives have 
no certainty that their marriage vows may not at any time be 
severed by the auction block. Sold apart, they are considered 
divorced, and so may marry again. Thus the marriage relation 
among negroes is very degraded, having a demoralizing effect on a 
large part of our country. To say that negroes "are themselves 
both perverse and comparatively indifferent about this matter, — 
the negroes forming those connections knowing the chances of their 
premature dissolution" is to admit the damaging charge that slave 
life paralyzes the natural family instincts even of the savage. 

Another misfortune has been wrought by leaving the work to 
be done by the Africans. It has made labor disreputable all over 
the South. There is a large class of white people called "poor 
whites," not rich enough to live decently without work, yet dis- 
daining work because it places them on a level with negroes. 
They live a wretched, thriftless, hopeless existence. The rich 
whites, imperious masters, look down on them ; the negroes with 
wealthy owners despise them ; they are ignorant to a degree almost 
incredible in a "free" country like ours; and they are a class 
which never could exist in a community where honest labor is 
respected as it ought to be. 

The negro himself is treated horribly in nine cases out of ten. 
His lot is especially hard on large plantations, where hired over- 
seers, paid according to the number of bales of cotton they can 
produce, beat the blacks unmercifully, working under the theory 
that the negro will work under the lash or for fear of it. The 
backs of men and women and little children, ridged and scarred 
with the lash, illustrate the brutality of these "drivers." Negroes 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 129 

have been beaten to death so often that it has been necessary to 
make a law forbidding killing them at the whipping post. Imagine 
a "civilization" that requires such measures! And yet even this 
restraint is gotten around by making owners not responsible if 
their slaves die from "moderate correction I" 

The main argument in favor of slavery is that slaves do not want 
freedom. This is not true because all along the line dividing slave 
from free states, year after year the number of fugitives has been 
increasing. Under all apparent content is a terrible discontent 
which, in a race of more bloodthirsty nature than these peaceable 
Africans, would be deadly in its outbreak. And there is already 
too much blood of the white race in the faces of these bond-servants 
to make good chattels of them. 

One example of how a slave resisted the Fugitive Slave Law, 
(forcing any citizen to seize and return a fugitive) may be cited 
to show the new spirit of the neg-oes. Margaret Garner, a 
mulatto slave girl, had two children, both very white and fair. 
For the obvious reasons I have named, Margaret did not want to 
stay in slavery, and so she ran away with her children. They hid in 
the house of a free negro, but were soon tracked to their hiding 
place by Margaret's master and a force of men he had brought with 
him. The door was barred, but the ofi&cers battered it down and 
got in. When they entered, there stood Margaret Garner between 
the bodies of her two children, holding a knife in her hand. She 
had cut their throats with her own hand, and said she would 
rather have them dead than taken back to slavery. Margaret 
loved her babies, and wept when she told how pretty they were. 
But she never was sorry she had killed them, for she knew what 
she had saved them from. 

The Fugitive Slave Law must be subjected to a higher law, 
the Law of God, giving human beings the right to life and liberty. 
No longer shall one man, made a brute by the power given him, 
subject hundreds of his brothers to a serfdom that outrages all 
the God-given rights of human liberty that our fathers fought to 
defend. Free these down-trodden fellow-men ! Carry on the work 
of our fathers who died for liberty ! 



130 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI ON A FLAT BOAT 

From the Letters of James Raldon 

June 3, 1788 
My dear Parents : 

We are now preparing for our Mississippi trip, and have just 
finished building our boat. I am. enclosing you a picture of the 
crude affair which nevertheless fits our purpose nicely. My dear 
Mother, how you would laugh were you to see your son who in 
the east had the habit of dressing quite handsomely, clad in a 
flannel shirt of red, a blue jerkin, fitted loosely and brown 
trousers of the coarsest texture. Indeed this is the fashion in 
which we dress. My cap is of untanned skin and instead of boots 
I, like all my companions, wear moccasins. My hunting knife and 
tobacco pouch hang from a leather belt which I wear around my 
waist, and quite naturally a revolver is always in my pocket. 

Our boat is rather sturdy and well accomodates our party and 
materials. I am quite curious to begin the journey as the men who 
have made previous trips are very enthusiastic. 

I will close now and I send to you, my dear parents, much love 
from 

Your obedient son, 

James Raldon 

June 6, 1788 
Dearest Mother : 

I received your last letter just before we left on our trip. The 
weather has been delightful. As yet we have stopped no place. 
Our day is spent quite pleasantly, however, as "Prima Donna 
George," as the honorable Mr. Forest is nicknamed, has enter- 
tained us quite nobly with his many ditties, and old Bob Krundle 
is handy at the "fiddle." We sit on the deck and make merry. 
Our meals are fair ; good and plenty for ordinary boatmen. The 
men say I don't act a particle like an easterner and indeed they 
are greatly interested in my college life and society in Philadelphia. 
Tom Johnson deems me quite wonderful because I have shaken 
hands with General Washington, and actually dined with Sam 
Adams. But my staunchest and most intimate friend is Charles 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 131 

Gately, a fellow nearly forty, who claims I have "grit" for a boy 
of twenty, to come here when I don't have to. 

Well, dear Mother, we are going to land in a few minutes and 
so I shall have to terminate my letter. I will write you again 
as soon as possible. Give my love to Father and take much for 
yourself from, 

Your respectful son, 

James Raldon 

June 29, 1788 
My dear Parents : 

I am so sorry that I am unable to receive letters from you but 
as we are always moving it is impossible. Since I last saw you I 
have had many interesting experiences. At Cahokia we had a fine 
sale, but few other places have greatly desired our wares. After 
leaving Cahokia, however, we met another boat of our type pinned 
on a planter. Stopping we asked if we could be of assistance and 
indeed they were delighted to accept our aid as they had been in 
distress for many hours. We landed and then helped to set the 
boat loose. After toiling for probably three hours we succeeded 
in our task and indeed our friends were appreciative. 

That was our first experience of the kind but the other men 
said that such occurrences were common and that we would 
probably encounter one before our trip was ended. One night 
sometime later, we stopped, landed, and camped in the forest. 
We had heard that the district was inhabited by about sixty-five 
thousand Indians, and so one man kept watch with a rifle, and 
was ordered to awaken the entire camp at any suspicion of 
Indians. The watch was changed at twelve o'clock in the night, 
the first part of the evening passing peacefully. But about two 
o'clock in the morning we were awakened. "Strange sounds in 
the trees" we were warned. All armed, we waited silently. Again 
the pecuhar noise was audible. Next we distinguished the sound 
of stealthy footsteps ; outwardly I was calm, but every nerve was 
tense and although I did not actually fear the Indians I was 
agitated and nervous. The great question, which of course we 
were unable to answer, was how many Indians were there. 
A moment or two of silence elapsed. Then with a rush our camp 



132 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

was attacked by panthers. Later we learned they were not really 
panthers but what are known and termed as "wild-cats." With 
little difificulty and in an exceedingly short time the beasts were 
slain, and therefore our experiences so far with Indians have been 
quite mild. 

When I reach New Orleans I will write how you will be able to 
write or meet me if you wish. Until then m_ay providence guard 
you. 

Much love from your ever obedient and respectful son, 

James Raldon 



AN IMAGINARY LETTER FROM HENRY CLAY TO 
JOHN C. CALHOUN 

Ghent, the Netherlands 
February i, 1815 
John C. Calhoun, M.C. 

Washington, D.C., U.S.A. 
Dear Sir : 

By the time this epistle reaches you the treaty, which our com- 
mission, after much delay, succeeded in wresting from the British 
commissioners, will perhaps have been ratified or rejected by the 
Senate. I trust the former will be the case. 

Although the treaty does not provide for the abolition of these 
outrages by which we were driven to war, yet the respect for our 
nation, which the memory of our victorious commands will enhance 
will doubtless prevent their repe,tition. The Orders in Council have 
been repealed and I am confident that with Napoleon's downfall, 
which must come shortly, interference with our trade and impress- 
ment of our seamen will cease. 

As desirable as was war and honor three years ago, much more to 
be desired today is peace, if it can be obtained without dishonor. 
Recent reports from the various states, telling of the distress due 
to our blockaded ports and interrupted commerce, have so alarmed 
the commission that even I, whom Randolph called a "war hawk," 
am willing to accept a treaty which guarantees peace alone. I 
sincerely hope that you have not or will not use your influence to 
defeat its ratification or to embarrass its drafters. 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 133 

!IVIr. Adams has returned to Russia to resume his post. The 
remainder of the commission, Messrs. Bayard, Gallatin, Russell, 
and myself are awaiting word of the Senate's action before return- 
ing home. 

Your fellow-countryman, 

H. Clayi 

The foregoing are enough examples to give the history 
teacher a concrete notion of a number of types of written 
work. There is a kind, however, which it will not be feasible 
to illustrate with an example because of its varied nature. 
This is blackboard work in a multitude of forms. The reader 
will recall that Miss Thorndyke in her assignment always made 
provision for blackboard work to which some time in most 
class periods was devoted. Attention has also been called to 
the use of the blackboard in teaching pupils to make outlines. 
Another kind of blackboard work is the short-paragraph reci- 
tation written on the board, without the use of notes, on topics 
announced by the teacher which may or may not have been 
previously assigned. This type of work gives more pupils an 
opportunity to recite as well as affords valuable training in 
written expression. Furthermore, when the board work is 
criticized by the class, the principle of unity is maintained 
just as it is in oral reciting. 

The practical thing for a teacher to do in preparing for 
this sort of work is to make a definite list of diagrams and 
similar material suitable for blackboard reproduction in each 
field of history he teaches. References where these diagrams 
can be found should accompany this list. For example, if 
the teacher desired to have the plan of a Greek home repro- 
duced on the blackboard, material for it can be found in 
Breasted's Ancient Times, p. 456, and in West's Ancient World, 
p. 231. There has been published recently a rather extensive 
list of diagrams in each field of high-school history suitable 

1 Williams, " Standards for Judging Instruction in History," History 
Teacher's Magazine, VI, 239. 



134 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

for blackboard reproduction. It is too long to reproduce here. 
Those interested in this matter will find the list with exact 
references in the History Teacher's Magazme, VIII, 253 ff. 

The Problem of English 

As soon as the history teacher decides that the formal 
written work shall have an important place in the general 
scheme of making up final grades, the problem of English 
forces itself to the front. The two questions that he must 
answer at the outset are : Must the history teacher be respon- 
sible for the English in the written work in history ? and Shall 
the pupil who does good formal written work from the stand- 
point of history but poor from the standpoint of English receive 
a low grade in history ? If the history teacher answers each of 
these two questions in the negative, some arrangement would 
need to be made with the English department so that he would 
grade the history in a given paper and the English teacher the 
English. If such an adjustment could be made, as the teacher 
of history he would emphasize content rather than form. For 
him, the thing said would be of chief concern and not the way 
it was said. It would be possible for a pupil under such a 
scheme to make a relatively high grade in history even though 
his grade in Ehglish were low. He might pass in his history 
but fail in his English. 

Another solution of this same problem has been suggested.^ 
This, however, involves a complete reorganization of the high- 
school English course, as follows : Instead of having the pupil 
spend four years in classes in English, as he now does, reduce 
this time to about two years, giving him a course in form, 
much practice in paragraph and sentence structure, some his- 
tory of literature, and a few literary masterpieces to develop 
appreciation. The time saved by adopting this scheme would 
be given to the teaching of history, sciences, commercial and 
industrial subjects. The teachers of these branches would in 

^ Judd, Psychology of High-School Subjects, p. 210. 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 135 

reality become English teachers, simply applying what had 
been taught in the English department. Such an economy 
would be in harmony with the idea that the pupil and not the 
subject taught is the center of gravity in all courses in the 
high school. 

While history teachers are waiting for the actual realization 
of the reforms required to inaugurate the plan outlined above, 
they will have either to overlook the mistakes in English 
made by the pupils in writing history papers, or, with the 
consent of the principal, and the cooperation of the English 
department, form a combination course made up of history 
and English. Such a course if inaugurated could be taught 
by one or two teachers. The two-teacher plan as worked out 
in the Mary C. Wheeler School, Providence, Rhode Island, is 
briefly described as follows by one of the originators: 

The time set apart for Ancient History and English in a given 
year has been reduced from seven to five periods a week ; two of 
these five recitations are conducted by the teacher of English, 
three by the teacher of history; all of the reading done in con- 
nection with the English work is made tributary to the course in 
history ; the use of correct English in speech and writing is as 
much a requirement for the history class as is a knowledge of 
certain historical facts. In both classes a definite effort is made 
to develop the ability to read rapidly, discriminatingly, and thought- 
fully. The year's work as a whole must satisfy the demands of 
both departments for the required work of the given year. . . . 

In all the work in history a constant effort is made to put in 
practice the principles of English in which the pupil has been 
trained, by insisting that oral and written recitations be made in 
good form, that complete sentences be used, and that ideas be 
accurately expressed. The pupils are encouraged to make a 
conscious effort to enlarge their vocabularies by studying the mean- 
ing and derivation of new words and by making a point of using 
them. The study of paragraph structure, begun in the previous 
year, is carried on both in reading and in writing. Outlines are 
made, sometimes in class, sometimes as outside work. Written 



136 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

work is corrected by the English teacher or by the history teacher, 
or by both. In any case, it is corrected for both Enghsh form 
and historical accuracy.^ 

On the face of it this scheme seems worth trying out. In 
all probability the pupils will receive as much real education 
in one year through such a combination as in two years under 
the present segregated plan. There are, however, connected 
with the project certain administrative obstacles, such as 
finding something for the history teacher to do while the 
English teacher is teaching the class, and vice versa. One way 
to overcome such an obstacle is to make one teacher respon- 
sible for all the instruction whether in history or English. 
This plan has been successfully tried out in the J. Sterling 
Morton High School, Cicero, Illinois. Third-year English 
is merged with American history, and a combined course of 
composition, English literature, and English history is given 
in the fourth year. One teacher is responsible for all the work 
in each of these courses. Some idea of what is done in the 
course in the third year may be gained from a general account 
of a week's work. 

A week's work in this course [third-year English-American his- 
tory] is as follows : assignments in the history text ; collateral reading 
in secondary books of history of a minimum of twenty-five pages ; 
literature assignments which use the history as a background, 
equivalent to about fifty pages ; and written work, which consists 
of writing up oral reports given in the daily class work. Each 
pupil reports orally to the class on subjects not treated in the text- 
book. Some forty or fifty of these reports are given each month 
by the class, and this makes a minimum demand on the pupil of 
two reports a month. Two reports a day on the average are given 
in class. The reports are always sure to be Mstened to because of 
the new material they contain ; and, furthermore, interest is almost 
coerced because each pupil is required to take notes on these re- 
ports and expand the notes into paragraphs or outlines for the 

^ Hobson, " Co-operation between Ancient History and English," School 
Review, XXV, 481, 483. 



WRITTEN WORK IN HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 137 

notebook. The teacher scans the notebook with the same care 
which he gives the other written work of the department. Besides 
the writing up of the notes from the pupil reports in class, three 
700-1000-word themes on collateral subjects are required each 
semester.^ 

The two plans described above, assuring as they do the 
proper attention to both English and to history in all written 
work done in connection with history instruction, are worthy 
of imitation and adoption by other schools. Should neither of 
them be feasible, there is still another plan which the history 
teacher might use requiring only the cooperation of the 
English teacher for its success. In brief it is this : In English 
classes specializing on short themes, let the history teacher 
supply a certain proportion of the subjects; also in a class 
specializing in debating, let the history teacher furnish some 
of the subjects for the debate's. Such cooperation would assure 
the English teacher a supply of real and vital subjects for her 
pupils on which to write and to debate. It would also reen- 
force the history work and make the pupils feel that some 
practical use of their historical knowledge could be made. 
The following are some topics in Greek history which might 
be used for short them'es: ^^A Day in a Spartan School," 
''A Day as an Athenian Boy," ''A Day as an Athenian 
Matron," '^My March with Alexander the Great," "When 
I Won the Race at Olympia," and "What I Saw at Delphi." ^ 
Under such a plan as this, the history teacher would also 
need to carry on other types of written work independently 
of the English department, since theme-writing is but one of 
the many types of written work to be done in connection 
with history instruction. 

1 Church, " An Experiment in Third- Year English," School Review, 
XXV, 492. 

2 Monro, "Theme Subjects from Greek History," History Teachers 
Magazine, V, 252. 



138 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Church, H. V. "An Experiment in Third- Year English," School Review, 
XXV (i9i7),488ff. 

Cole, Marion C. "Visualizing History," Education, XXXIV (1914), 
501 ff. 

HoBSON, Elsie G. " Co-operation between Ancient History and English," 
School Review, XXV (191 7), 480 ff. 

Monro, Kate M. "Theme Subjects from Greek History," History 
Teacher's Magazine, V (1914), 252 f. 

Williams, O. H. "Standards for judging Instruction in History," His- 
tory Teacher's Magazine, VI (19x5), 235 ff. 

WuESTHOFF, W. W. " Blackboard Work in History Teaching," History 
Teacher's Magazine, VIII (1917), 253 ff. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE TERM PAPER AND THE PERMANENT 
NOTEBOOK 

Closely related to the written work discussed in the pre- 
ceding chapter are the term paper and the permanent note- 
book, the former being the culminating product of all written 
work and the latter a sort of repository for all work of a 
permanent nature. Because of its closer relation to the subject 
matter in Chapter VI, the term paper will be considered first. 

The Term Paper 

As discussed in this chapter the term paper is quite an 
elaborate piece of work done according to scientific procedure 
in the application of the historical method. Since it is to be 
a sort of summing up of the historical training that a pupil 
has received, it should not be attempted before the last half 
of the eleventh year. Preferably the paper should be written 
in connection with the work in American history usually 
begun in the twelfth year, and, since it is to be a scientific and 
a somewhat elaborate undertaking, it will be necessary for the 
teacher to give the students rather specific instructions for 
preparing it. If possible a copy similar to the following should 
be placed in the hands of each member of the class. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF A TERM PAPER 

I. Reading and note-taking. 

I. Having decided upon your topic in consultation with the in- 
structor, begin actual work on it by reading some general 
accounts such as you will find in an encyclopedia, a 

139 



I40 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

historical dictionary, or an elaborate treatment of the 
field in which your topic lies. Make an information 
outhne of each general account you read. 

2. Make a list of the references you find in doing your general 

reading. Encyclopedia articles often have valuable lists 
following the discussions. Other general accounts may 
include reference material in footnotes or in the general 
bibliography at the end of the chapter or book. 

3. Begin your serious reading on any one of the references 

you now have on your subject. Continue until your list 
has been exhausted. 

4. As you read your references secured in your preliminary 

survey you will find others. List all of these for future 
use. Continue this until you have finished your reading. 

5. In reading an individual reference, first glance through 

the entire discussion. Next, fix in your mind the big 
points discussed. Decide upon a name for each of these. 
Let these names form the basis of your note-taking on 
the reference. If you decide, upon glancing through the 
reference, that it contains nothing on your topic which 
you do not already have, give it no further attention. 

6. Take your notes on sheets of paper of a convenient size. 

Write oil but one side. Place but one note on each 
page. Write the subject of the note at the top and 
the reference at the bottom, using the last name of 
the author, title in abbreviated form, voMme, and page. 

7. Before leaving a reference on which you have taken notes 

secure your complete bibliographical data, including 
author's full name, full title of the work, date and 
place of pubhcation, volumes in the series and the 
volume you have used, and edition. Write this in- 
formation on a separate card. You may later want 
to use it in your permanent bibliography. If your 
bibliography is to be annotated, write your annotation 
on the card at the time you make it out. 

8. In taking your notes you may paraphrase, quote directly, 

summarize, or outline. The first and second of these 
forms will prove of most value when you come to 
write your paper. Occasionally thoughts will come to 



TERM PAPER AND NOTEBOOK 141 

■ \ 

you on the subject when reading a reference ; if they 
do, do not neglect to jot them down. If in paraphras- 
ing you write out in the best Enghsh at your command 
just what you think you will later say in your paper, 
you can often incorporate it bodily. 
9. All notes should, of course, be legible. Great care should 
be taken in this respect, especially with direct quota- 
tions, where spelling, punctuation, and capitalization 
must be exactly as they are in the matter quoted. To 
make sure of this on finishing your copy always check 
it against the original. 
II. Organizing and writing. 

1. On finishing your reading or when the time is nearing for 

the outline of your paper to be submitted to the 
instructor, go through your notes and classify them. 
They will be likely to fall into three or four large 
groups. If it now appears that you are short of 
material in any one group, center the remainder of 
your reading upon it. 

2. Make a guidance outline containing as many subtopics 

as your notes will justify. Arrange your notes in each 
main division in the same order as your subtopics. 

3. With your outHne of the first chief division before you, 

as well as your notes on it properly arranged, write the 
draft of this part of your paper. Repeat this procedure 
for each main section. 

4. Form for completed paper. 

a. On the first page write nothing but the title and your 

name. 

b. On the second page give a brief foreword or preface. 

In this state what you have tried to accomplish in 
your paper, your point of view, special difficulties you 
have encountered, and any other matters of like 
character. 

c. On the page following the preface repeat the title ; skip 

a line and begin the body of the paper. 

d. Place the bibhography last. Include in it only references 

actually used in the preparation of your paper and 
arrange them in alphabetic order. 



142 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

III. Some footnote reference technic. 

1. What should appear in footnotes. All material unnecessary 

to the general continuity of the narrative should appear 
in footnotes, if used in your paper. This material in- 
cludes explanations of a certain type, illustrations in 
the form of concrete descriptions, additional facts, and 
statements of different views on a matter in dispute. 

2. When to use the abbreviation for page and pages. Use 

"p." for "page" and "pp." for "pages" if the book 
is a one-volume pubHcation. If there is more than one 
volume, it is unnecessary to use either. Examples : 
Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, p. 62 ; Roosevelt, Win- 
ning of the West, I, 317. 
3. How to punctuate the titles of books. The order of details is : 
author's family name, followed by a comma ; title of the 
book, underscored ; number and date of edition in paren- 
thesis, if desired, followed by a comma ; reference to vol- 
ume and page, followed by a period. Example: Kalm, 
Travels into North America (2d ed., 1772), II, 69. 

4. How to pimctuate the titles of articles. The order of 

details is : family name of the author of the article, 
followed by a comma ; title of the article, quoted, and 
followed by a comma ; name of the publication in 
which the article appears, underscored and followed 
by a comma ; reference to volume followed by date in 
parenthesis ; comma ; page followed by a period. Ex- 
ample: Curtis, "The Place of Sacrifice," Biblical World, 
XXI (1902), 208. 

5. The meaning and use of "'f." and "§." and "pp." in 

connection with them. "Pp. 8 f." means page 8 and 
the following page (in other words, pages 8 and 9) ; 
"pp. 10 ff." refers to page 10 and the following pages (in 
other words, pages 10, 11, 12, and as many more as con- 
tain any of the material to which the reference appHes). 
Examples : Abbott, Women in Industry, pp. 38 f. ; 
Drake, Pioneer Life in Kentucky, pp. 60 ff. If you 
desire to show that you have used all the material on 
certain pages, do not use "f." or "ff.," but do it thus : 
pp. 82-84, which means pages 82 to 84 inclusive. 



TERM PAPER AND NOTEBOOK 143 

6. When not to repeat the author's name and the title of the 
work in the footnote. If the author's name is men- 
tioned in the body of your paper, it is not necessary 
to repeat it in the footnote ; or if both author and 
title are included in the body of your paper, neither 
should appear in the reference. Examples : If you 
have such an expression in the body of your paper 
as "Channing, in his History of the United States, 
claims that," the footnote would be "Vol. Ill, p. 62." 
Or if you should use the assertion "Smith, in her 
Colonial Days and Ways, declares," the footnote would 
be either "p. 62," "pp. 62 f.," "pp. 62 ff.," or "pp. 62- 
65," depending upon the length of the quotation. 

7. The meaning and use of the abbreviations "ibid.," "ib." 

^Hd." "Ibid." and "ib." are abbreviations of the Latin 
ibidem, meaning "in the same place," "at the place," or 
"in the book already mentioned." They are used in order 
to avoid the repetition of a reference. "Id." is an ab- 
breviation of the Latin word idem, meaning " the same," 
"the same as above, or before." Of the three "ibid." 
is most frequently employed. It is used when each 
succeeding title is the same as the next preceding one. 
Example : 

^ Am. State Papers, "Finance," II, 432. 

2 Ibid. p. 435. 

^Ibid. p. 427. 

8. The meaning and use of the abbreviations" op. cit." and" loc. 

cit." "Op. cit." is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase 
opere citato, meaning "in the work cited"; and "loc. cit." 
is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase loco citato, 
meaning "in the place (previously) cited." "Op. cit." is 
most commonly used. When a title is mentioned on 
one page and you desire to mention it again two or 
three or more pages in advance, use "op. cit." instead of 
repeating the title. Example : If the reference "Coxe, 
A View of the United States, pp. 49 f." was used on 
page 9 of your paper and you wish to cite the same 
book on page 15, you would use "Coxe, op. cit. p. 52" 
and thus avoid a useless repetition. 



144 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

IV. The complete bibliography. 

1. Confine your bibliography to the titles actually used in 

working up your paper. 

2. Arrange alphabetically by authors. 

3. Annotate the references that give unusual or unique treat- 

ments of the topic. 

4. The order of details for each title is : author's full name 

or initials, followed by a period ; the title of the work, 
underscored and followed by a period ; number of 
volumes if more than one, followed by a period ; place 
of publication followed by a comma ; and date of 
publication followed by a period. This same order 
holds for an article, the name of the publication taking 
the place of the book and the article being quoted. 
Examples : 

a. Olmstead, F. L. A Journey in the Back Country. Nev/ 

York, i860. 

b. Vogel, William. "Home Life in Early Indiana," Indiana 

Magazine of History, Vol. X, Nos. 2 and 3. 
Bloomington, Ind., 19 14. 

This rather long list of directions should not be given to 
the students in its entirety at the outset. The last two 
sections should not be given out until their contents have been 
developed inductively in the class. The last section, however, 
should be placed in the hands of the student before he does 
much on his paper, so that he will know just what bibliographi- 
cal data to collect. Since section three will not actually be 
needed until the pupil is ready to begin the writing of his 
paper, some attention should be given to it about once a 
week until all the items have been discussed. If this plan is 
followed, the rules will not seem formal and their application 
will give no serious difficulties. 

The steps in the preparation of the term paper have been 
outlined elsewhere and need not be repeated here.^ Something, 
however, should be said about selecting suitable subjects for 

1 Pp. 112 f. 



TERM PAPER AND NOTEBOOK 145 

the paper. It is obvious, of course, that it is folly to assign 
subjects on which there is no available material. Granting 
that the material is at hand, topics should be definite, clearly- 
stated, admit of concrete treatment, have a rather definite 
beginning and ending, and not extend over too long a period 
of time. The following list of topics actually used by a class 
in American history meets most of these requirements. 

1. The Defense of the Alamo. 

2. The Religion of the Slaves. 

3. The Invention of the Telegraph. 

4. Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet. 

5. The Oregon Trail. 

6. The McCormick Reaper. 

7. The Sante Fe Trail. 

8. Early American Prisons. 

9. The Discovery of Gold in California. 

10. Food and Table Manners a Century Ago. 

11. Early Systems of Labor in the United States. 

12. Old-Time Schools. 

13. The Peggy Eaton Affair. 

14. The Origin of Star-Spangled Banner. 

15. The Birth of a Nation (Founding of Liberia). 

16. The Battle of Bladensburg and the Burning of Washington. 

17. Intemperance in America One Hundred Years Ago. 

18. Early Stagecoaches. 

19. Wildcat Banking. 

20. The Panic of 1837. 

21. Customs and Manners a Century Ago. 

22. Early Steamboats on the Atlantic. 

23. The Steamboat. 

24. Labor Conditions a Century Ago. 

25. Negro Amusements on a Southern Plantation. 

Some excellent papers should result from these or similar 
subjects. Even though many of the papers are meritorious, 
few of them as a rule should be read in class, because the paper 
itself is an individual and not a class product. It is well, 



146 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

of course, to use the material in some of the papers in the 
form of special reports as the course progresses, whenever this 
is possible. This takes for granted, however, that the accounts 
are of vital interest and importance to the work of the day 
on which they are given. 

The Notebook in History Teaching 

The notebook in history teaching has had an interesting 
career. Generally speaking, history teachers imitated the 
science teachers in adopting it as a regular feature of their 
work. The scientific spirit that was injected into history 
during the last two decades of the nineteenth century resulted 
in the source method when taken down into the high school. 
The source method could not be employed successfully on this 
level without considerable use of the permanent notebook. See- 
ing the utilization of the notebook in connection with teaching 
history by the source method, the advocates of the topical 
method soon discovered that it would be a valuable adjunct to 
their teaching, so they, too, quite universally adopted it. In 
fact, it finally came to pass that only those old-fashioned 
teachers who still taught by the page-by-page and chapter-by- 
chapter textbook method found no use for the notebook in their 
teaching. Hence, as the situation now stands, it is probably 
true that a substantial majority of high-school history teachers 
require their students to keep some kind of a notebook in con- 
nection with their history work. 

Even though the notebook is quite generally employed in 
high-school history teaching, there are certain disadvantages 
or evils connected with its use which should be brought to 
the attention even of its most ardent supporters. Chief among 
these are ( i ) frequently time which might be better spent 
is wasted in copying material for the notebook ; ( 2 ) too much 
dependence is placed on the notebook ; in other words, pupils 
are likely to feel that if they have a thing in their notebook 
there is no need of actually learning it ; (3) properly to grade 



\ TERM PAPER AND NOTEBOOK 147 

and check up notebook work takes too much of the teacher's 
time and energy ; (4) pupils are likely to learn the mechanics 
of notebook-making rather than the substance of history ; 
(5) the work often degenerates into mere copying ; (6) if too 
detailed, notebook work tends to deaden the work in history ; 
(7) there is danger of notebook work becoming formal and de- 
generating into mere drudgery; (8) too often the notebook 
when finished contains very little or nothing of permanent 
value ; (9) the notebook is too often prepared for the teacher's 
benefit rather than the pupil's. In justice to the use of the 
notebook in studying history it should be said that none of 
these disadvantages or evils is inherent in it, but that they all 
result from the abuse and the misuse of a tool which has 
num,erous potential values. 

On looking at the other side of the question one discovers 
that there are certain advantages claimed for the history 
notebook which largely offset the disadvantages. Some of 
these benefits as given by high-school teachers themselves are 

( 1 ) it aids in crystallizing, classifying, and organizing material ; 

(2) it is especially valuable for review; (3) it develops such 
habits as order, promptness, neatness, accuracy, and definite- 
ness in history work ; (4) it helps in differentiating the im- 
portant from the unimportant points, thus developing the 
power to evaluate material; (5) pupils themselves say that 
the history notebook is one of the most helpful devices used 
by the teacher to cause them to appreciate and understand 
history ; (6) it gives an additional avenue for expressing ideas, 
namely, the motor, and is, therefore, a great aid to the motor- 
minded individuals, causing them to take more interest in 
the subject.^ From these statements of experienced teachers 
it will be seen that a notebook, if wisely used, can be made a 
valuable adjunct to high-school history teaching. The ad- 
vantages seem to outweigh the disadvantages ; in other words, 

^ Gold, " Methods and Content of Courses in History in the High Schools 
of the United States," School Review^ XXV, 274. 



148 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

there seem to be no drawbacks or evils that cannot be over- 
come by skillful use. Granting the truth of this statement, 
there remains but one conclusion, namely, that the keeping of a 
permanent notebook by each student in connection with his 
history work is a worth-while thing to do and should become 
a practice in all high-school history teaching. It should never 
become an end in itself, however, but should always be kept 
subordinated to the acquisition of historical knowledge and to 
the securing of mental training along historical lines. 

Inexperienced teachers are sometimes uncertain as to the 
types of material that should appear in the notebook. Before 
any great amount of assistance can be given them in this 
matter, some understanding will have to be reached as to the 
exact meaning of the term ^^ notebook." As used in this dis- 
cussion the permanent history notebook implies a depository 
for that part of the student's daily historical activities which 
are expressed in the form of written exercises, maps, sketches, 
diagrams, etc., which may or may not come before his teacher's 
eye and which he, himself, retains for reference or review at 
least until the end of the course. With this as a working 
definition, the following exercises might well be included in a 
worth-while history notebook : ma^ and chronological out- 
lines or charts ; notes on lectures given by the teacher and 
reports given by other members of the class ; biographical 
sketches ; special tabulations and comparisons ; short and long 
themes ; reference lists ; test and examination papers ; briefs ; 
guidance and information outlines ; notes taken in class other 
than those on lectures and reports ; summaries of periods ; 
text analyses ; special dictations by the teacher ; graphs, dia- 
grams, and plans ; lists of important dates-events ; lists of 
historical personages ; notes on collateral reading ; statistical 
tables, cartoons, pictures, and drawings ; and edited newspaper 
and magazine clippings of a historical character. With this 
list before him the beginning teacher need not hesitate about 
what to have placed in the permanent notebook in history. 



TERM PAPER AND NOTEBOOK 149 

There is, however, another fact which he must keep in mind 
in selecting from this Hst those he expects to emphasize in 
each class. This is no other than the threefold purpose 
underlying all permanent notebook work in history, which is, 
stated briefly, for acquisition, for expression, and for refer- 
ence. Now, if the teacher desires to emphasize acquisition 
in a particular course, he will select the notebook exercises 
with this form of activity in mind ; .or if he desires to em- 
phasize each of the three about equally, he will select his 
material accordingly. For example, if the teacher's aim is to 
have his pupils acquire facts and framework, he will em- 
phasize charts, chronological tables, lists of important dates, 
graphs, maps, plans, digests, notes on lectures, reports, 
and collateral reading ; if his desire is to accentuate expression, 
chief attention will be given to summaries of periods or topics, 
themes, term reports, and biographical sketches ; and, finally, 
if his purpose is to have a notebook mainly for reference, 
he will stress records of collateral reading done, book lists, 
assignments, elaborate bibliographies, and the like. It will 
be observed that the second of these three is a higher and 
more difficult performance than either of the other two. The 
exercises for expression should therefore be carefully graded 
and adapted to the varying degrees of intellectual maturity 
of the students in the different classes. To be specific, one 
would not ask the sophomores to write the term paper con- 
templated in this chapter, but would demand of them short 
themes and summaries. 

The question is sometimes asked by inexperienced history 
teachers, "What is the best form for a history notebook?" 
There is, of course, no best form. The thing to do in deter- 
mining this matter is to use the form best adapted to the class 
and the work required of it. The most satisfactory notebooks 
ever kept by a high-school class taught by the writer were 
books of all shapes and sizes, the pupils being left entirely to 
their own choice as to the form to be used. While this plan 



150 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

secured originality, interest, enthusiasm, thoroughness, and 
accuracy, a loose-leaf notebook of a convenient size would 
probably have attained the same results if properly managed. 
Since there is no satisfactory ready-made history notebook on 
the market as there is in physics, chemistry, and general 
science, the only thing left for the teacher is to have his pupils 
use a form of his own choice, which should be inexpensive, 
convenient, and preferably loose-leaf made up of No. 6 un- 
ruled paper. 

If, in a large high school, uniformity is desired in the matter 
of keeping history notebooks, it will be necessary to formulate 
specific directions relative to their construction just as in the case 
of the term paper. The following instructions to students and 
teachers concerning the use of the notebook in history study 
at one time employed in the Sioux City High School, Sioux 
City, Iowa, will serve to illustrate what is meant here : 



INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS AND TEACHERS RELATIVE TO 
THE USE OF THE NOTEBOOK IN HISTORY STUDY 

I. Each student in the History department is required to have 
a Sioux City High School History Notebook. 

1. For sale in the High School Book Shop. 

2. Notebook covers cost lo cents. 

3. Filler, fifty sheets, costs 10 cents. 

II. The notebook work will count 33I per cent, the recitation 
33 J per cent, and the test ss^ per cent in determining 
the student's grade for a six weeks' period. 

III. All writing in the notebook must be done in ink. 

IV. The outline form of notes is recommended — that is, con- 

densing the material read into short sentences, clauses, 
etc. under topical headings. 
V. Material to be placed in the notebook : 

I. An outline of all special reports given in class. 

a. The heading for the report should contain the subject 
and number, references read, and name of student 
giving report. 



TERM PAPER AND NOTEBOOK 151 

2. An outline of the most important points made in the 

recitation. 

3. An outline of the collateral reading required by the 

instructor. 

4. All maps, charts, art drawings, newspaper clippings, etc. 

that may be required by the instructor. 
VI. What the notebook should show : 

1. Intelligent reading and organization. 

2. Good Enghsh, spelling, and penmanship. 

3. Uniform margins about one and one-half inches in width. 

4. Neat topical headings or subdivisions indicated by Roman 

numerals. 

5. The reference subject and references placed on the first 

and second lines of the sheet. 

a. Reference should include title of book, author, volume, 

and pages read. 

b. Subject and references may be written in red ink or 

underscored for emphasis. 
VII. Greek History students should outline important parts of 
the textbook in place of the collateral reading mentioned 
in V. 
VIII. Since the value of notebook work depends quite largely 
upon careful supervision by the instructor, it is recom- 
mended : 

1. That the notebooks be inspected by instructor at least 

twice each six weeks. 

2. That an 0. K. or criticism be placed on the notebooks 

at the first inspection. 

3. That a grade be placed on the notebook at the second 

inspection. 

4. That a grade of F on the notebook means a condition 

in that subject. 

5. The condition must be removed within one week follow- 

ing the grading. 
IX. Suggestive weekly amounts of collateral reading are as 
follows : 

1. Greek History (last six weeks), 10 pages. 

2. Roman History, 10 to 15 pages. 

3. Medieval History, 20 to 25 pages. 



152 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

4. Modern History, 25 to 30 pages. 

5. English History, 30 to $$ pages. 

6. American History, 35 to 40 pages. 

7. Civics, 35 to 40 pages. 

8. Economics, 35 to 40 pages. 

X. The collateral reading will vary somewhat with the period 
under consideration and the manner in which the text- 
book is used. 
XL Frequent reviews of the notebook work should be made by 

the student under the direction of the instructor. 
XII. Liberal credit is allowed for the notebook work, since it 
is an essential part of History study. 

XIII. Many of the better universities are requiring the high- 

school notebook as an entrance condition. 

XIV. The complete set of notes must be handed in to the instruc- 

tor, who will return the same to the student at the close 
of the following semester. 
XV. An exception to XIV is made in the case of graduates. 

Whether or not one agrees with each point in the foregoing 
instructions, one must acknowledge the fact that they represent 
an effort in the right direction. For if notebook work is 
worth doing, it is worth doing well and should have reasonable 
recognition. In a large high school where students are fre- 
quently changing from one teacher to another there is undeni- 
ably a need for the same uniformity in the matter of notebooks 
that is found in textbooks and examinations. 

There remains to be discussed in connection with the note- 
book, and all written work for that matter, the problem of 
grading, an unpleasant subject to overworked history teachers 
and very unpleasant to the unprepared ones, since so much of 
their time is consumed in keeping in advance of the class. 
Some teachers try to solve this problem by short-cut methods, 
such as oral quizzes on notebook work.^ Short-cut methods 
are all right in their place, but there is no royal road to the 
grading of notebook and written work in history. The practical 

^ Whitlow,"The History Notebook," i^w^c^rr Teacher's Magazine, IX, 205. 



^ TERM PAPER AND NOTEBOOK 153 

plan for the well-prepared and conscientious teacher to follow 
is to have his pupils do in written form just what he has time to 
grade and no more. Let the grading be done with care, 
especially as it relates to the history in the notes. Let the 
pupils understand that the grade on their notebook and written 
work will count a specific amount in the determination of 
their final grades. The Sioux City, Iowa, proportion mentioned 
above is not bad, provided enough written work is done to 
justify it. If the written work is graded from day to day and 
a record kept of it, the burden does not become an accumulat- 
ing one. To leave the grading of all written work done in six 
weeks until the end of the period means that it will not be 
graded properly because of the teacher's temporal and physical 
limitations, 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Armstrong, R. D. "The History Notebook in Secondary Schools," 
History Teacher's Magazine, VII (1916), 277 ff. 

Gold, H. H. "Methods and Content of Courses in History in the High 
Schools of the United States," School Review, XXV (1917), 274 ff. 

Leffler, Shepherd. " Constructive Notebook Work in History," In- 
diana University Bulletin, Vol. XIII, No. 10, pp. 14 ff. Bloomington, 
Ind., 1915. 

Lybyer, Albert H. "The Use and Abuse of Notebooks in the Teaching 
of History," Proceedings of the North Central History Teachers' 
Association, pp. 15 ff., 1910. 

Pearse, J. E. "The Use of the Notebook in High School History," 
Texas History Teacher's Btdleti)t,V o\. 11, No. i (November 15, 1913), 
pp. 7ff. 

Smith, Mary S. "Directions for History Work in the History Depart- 
ment of Meredith College, N. C," History Teacher's Magazine, I 
(1909), 90. 

Sullivan, James. "Notebooks and Readings," History Teacher's Maga- 
zine, II (1911), 227 ff. 

Whitlow, C. M. "The History Notebook," History Teacher's Magazine, 
IX (1918), 205. 



CHAPTER VIII 

MEASURING THE RESULTS OF HISTORY 
TEACHING 

History teachers have always measured the results of their 
teaching in one way or another. The system of grading and 
promotion which is such an integral part of the organization 
of every school has forced them to do this. The most efficient 
way, however, to test the results of their efforts has ever 
remained a puzzling problem with well-meaning and conscien- 
tious individuals. The formal written examination at stated 
intervals has been the instrument used in most cases. To this 
mode of measuring the results of instruction in history, how- 
ever, there have recently appeared many objectors, most of 
whom are engaged in phases of educational work other than 
the teaching of history. These individuals desire some sort 
of what they term standardized tests to determine objectively 
the results of instruction in history. Inasmuch as the tradi- 
tional history examination still remains the most prevalently 
used method of testing in a formal way the results of one's 
teaching and since standardized tests are likely to play an 
important role in the future, it seems appropriate to give these 
phases of a history teacher's work a separate consideration. 

The History Examination 

As used in this discussion the history examination means a 
formal written exercise performed by each member of a class 
in which specific answers are put down to questions set by 
the teacher. In actual practice these exercises occur once a 
month, once every six weeks, on finishing certain big topics 

154 



MEASURING RESULTS 155 

or divisions of the course, and at the end of the year or semes- 
ter. They can be justified on the grounds that, if properly 
managed, they give a splendid motive for reviewing the sub- /, 
ject, furnish a basis for promotion, find their counterpart in 
everyday life, and serve as a test of the efficiency of the 
teacher's own work. 

While the history examination can be justified on the fore- 
going grounds, there are certain adverse criticisms of it in its 
traditional form and the manner of giving it which deserve 
some attention. For example, it has been said that the cus- 
tomary manner of giving a history examination causes the 
pupil to waste much valuable time in reviewing unnecessary 
and unimportant material and to gamble on the questions 
the teacher is likely to ask. In the second place, it is asserted 
that the examination disappoints and discourages the pupil, 
when, after making a thorough and painstaking preparation for 
it, he makes a low grade because he failed to anticipate cor- 
rectly the questions the teacher asks him. Other adverse o 
criticisms are that memory is emphasized at the expense of 
doing and reasoning ; that no confidence can be placed in the 
results because history grades vary so widely when made up by 
different teachers ; that in most cases the examination is unfair 
both to the pupil and to the teacher ; that it lacks sufficient 
incentive for thorough preparation; and that, as a rule, its 
approach is dreaded by the pupils.^ 

In all probability the shortcomings of the history exami- 
nation have been unduly emphasized by its objectors ; for 
example, the charge that the grading is unreliable because 
i^ varies so much when different individuals mark tEe same 
paper. To test this matter the writer has on a number of 
occasions asked the members of his classes in the teaching of 
history to grade the specimen answers of college candidates 
in history, published by the College Entrance Examination 

^ See Gathany, " The Giving of History Examinations," Education, 
' XXXIV, 514 ff. 



156 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Board in 191 6. In this publication there are four manuscripts 
receiving a low grade and four a high grade, as well as the 
grade given by the reader for the Board to each answer. After 
it was made impossible to see the mark that was actually giveri 
to each answer, a copy of the pamphlet containing the eight 
manuscripts was placed in the hands of each student with the 
request that he grade them. On comparing the results of one 
hundred gradings of the eight manuscripts it was found that 
there was a somewhat remarkable uniformity in the grades 
given each manuscript by each grader, including the one that it 
actually received. For example, the actual low grade in ancient 
history was 43 per cent, and half of the marks in the experi- 
ment were within five points of this grade. Since there is 
usually a margin of ten points between groups of grades below 
70 per cent, the group into which the manuscript was placed 
by the actual mark was not changed in the majority of the 
cases in this experiment. It was found, further, that more 
uniformity is likely to occur with very good and very bad 
papers than when the manuscript lies in the borderland. For 
instance, when a manuscript received an actual mark of 
92 per cent, 90 per cent of the grades given by the students 
did not go five below or above this ; but when a manuscript 
received an actual grade of 78 per cent, not so -many of the 
students came as near as five to this mark. It would seem 
from this fact that the average student is the one who suffers 
from the alleged lack of reliability in the grading of his ex- 
amination papers. However, in spite of this fact, the experi- 
ment justifies the conclusion that there is sufficient reliability 
in the grading of history papers to make it reasonably fair to 
all students for the teacher to use an examination grade as a 
basis for determining at least one third of the final grade they 
are to receive in a course in history. 

No attempt will be made here to answer each of the adverse 
criticisms of the traditional history examination listed above ; 
in fact, there is no thought in this discussion of mitigating the 



MEASURING RESULTS 157 

evils now existing in the administration of this medieval insti- 
tution. Most individuals are willing to admit that in some 
localities the situation is bad in the extreme. Because of this 
fact the chief problem with serious-minded history teachers is 
to find a way to use an inherently valuable tool to the best 
advantage in connection with their teaching. Little worth- 
while work has been done on this phase of the subject. On 
the matter of changing the emphasis from memorizing to doing 
and thinking Professor Johnson^ suggests the following as 

' t^sts^of the ability to do and jto reason : interpret a map 
or picture ; analyze a paragra,ph or page in history ; find 
material on a given topic ; solve by use of material a 
simple problem in criticism ; recognize in given facts dif- 
ferent degrees of probability ; ' judge from a given description 
some historical character; discover in given conditions, past 
and present, resemblances, differences, relations, tendencies ; 

c^ organize a given collection of facts ;' select from the work of 
a term or year facts of special importance and explain why 
they are important. By incorporating some of these phases 
of work into his examination the teacher will be able to change 
it from a mere memory exercise to one which tests other equally 
important faculties. Professor Johnson feels that not more 
than one fourth, or perhaps one third, of the examination 
should be given over to a test of memory. 

Many serious-minded history teachers are making strenuous 
attempts to make the history examination something other 
than a mere test of memory. A splendid example of a final 
examination in history which purports to test the ability of 
pupils to hunt down material in libraries and facts in books, 
to interpret the printed page, and to organize in relation to a 
given problem the information thus obtained is contained in 
an account of some experiments along this line in the Julia 
Richman High School, New York City. The details of these ex- 
periments are too bulky to include here. In brief, the technic 

^ Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools, p. 428. 



158 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

consisted of having the examination written outside of school, 
a copy of the directions along with a topic being given each 
member of the class two or three days before the time set 
by the school program for the final examination. No two topics 
were alike and none was a subject which had been previously 
considered in class. A sample set of these directions will give 
the reader a concrete notion of the whole procedure. 

MID-TERM EXAMINATION IN INDUSTRIAL HISTORY II 

Directions. Place in Miss Osgood's box in the office before 
2:30, April — , a report on the subject assigned you written in 
ink or typewritten. This report must contain : 

1. A list of books which are of use for the subject, the title 
and the author of the book to be given in every case. 

2. Notes on the subject taken from one or more of these books, 
title of the book and pages consulted to head each set of notes, 

3. A two-page discussion of the assigned topic. 

4. At the close of the paper write and sign the following 
declaration : 

"I have received no help in the preparation of this report.'' 

Thirty per cent will be allowed for the list of books. In making 
this section both the number of books obtained and the quality 
of the books will be taken into consideration. 

Thirty per cent will be allowed for the notes. The number of 
facts obtained and the intelligence with which the notes are taken 
will be considered. 

Forty per cent will be given the discussion.^ 

Miss Osgood reports that the final results of her experi- 
ments were highly satisfactory. For some teachers, however, 
the chief virtue of such examinations is likely to be that there 
was no reviewing necessary to prepare for them, which in 
reality may or may not be a virtue, the determining factor 
being the manner of conducting a review, or, in other words, 
getting ready for a final examination. There is nothing in 

^ Osgood, " Some Experiments in a New Type of History Examination," 
History Teacher's Magazine^ IX, 338. 



MEASURING RESULTS 159 

the review as such to make it dry, formal, and unprofitable. 
Indeed, if one makes adequate preparation for the right sort 
of a final examination in history, its chief value has been 
attained before it has been formally written, the writing simply 
being a confirmation of the results attained in preparing for 
it. To make the reviewing of a course in history of most value, 
the class must be led to view it as a whole — to retell, as it 
were, the story of the field of history in which the course lies 
with all of the elaborations made possible by the daily work 
throughout the semester. In this retrospective view the teacher 
should see to it that the maps made, dates-events of most im- 
portance, noted personages, the chief reference books, and the 
like receive sufficient emphasis. Work of this character will 
be certain to take care of the memory phase of the subject, 
which is so essential to a satisfactory accomplishment of other 
desirable objectives in the teaching of history. 

Miss Osgood's experiments raise another question relative to 
the final examination in history, or any other subject for that 
matter: Should the teacher exempt from the final test certain 
pupils because of the high character of their work during the 
progress of the course? The experiments just mentioned 
would seem to answer this question in the negative, while 
practice often answers it affirmatively. If one accepts the 
latter of these views, it seems that one must at the same time 
admit that the final examination is both a reward and a punish- 
ment. Admitting this, a potentially valuable educational tool 
is brought into bad repute. Whether to exempt or not to 
exempt certain students from the final examination in a sub- 
ject seems to be an exception to the general rule that all 
questions have two sides ; for when such an exercise is made 
an integral part of the course, as it should be, if given at all, 
there will be no more reason for the more capable students' 
escaping it than for their omitting other essential phases of 
the work. There is such a thing as administering a final 
examination in a subject so that the brightest individual in 



i6o THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

the class will receive proportionately more value in writing it 
than will the slowest member. There should certainly be no 
exemption from examination of the type that Miss Osgood 
used. 

When the final examination is made an integral part of the 
work of a course, as it should be whenever administered, the 
question inevitably arises as to what part it shall play in deter- 
mining the final grade in history. It will be recalled that the 
Sioux City, Iowa, proportion was one third each to notebook 
work, the daily recitation, and the tests given once every six 
weeks.^ In all probability one third is too much to give to 
tests and examinations. While they are or can be made valu- 
able adjuncts to the course, it does not seem that they should 
count any more than one fourth or even less in the final 
make-up of one's grade in history. 

So far this discussion has concerned itself with examination 
over which the history teacher has complete control. These 
are by no means the only ones with which his students may 
have to cope. If they should desire to enter certain colleges 
on graduating from the high school, they would be required 
to pass an examination prepared in whole or in part by outside 
authorities. Judging from the large number of candidates 
making a grade of less than 40 per cent in the examinations 
in history conducted by the College Examination Board since 
1900, it is one thing for a student to pass successfully an 
examination set by his teacher and quite another thing to 
pass one set by an outsider. The difficulty in the latter case 
has been that teachers have failed to foresee what the Board 
would ask. They either emphasized what later proved to be 
unimportant in the mind of the individuals making the ques- 
tions or attempted to teach everything on the same level, with 
the disastrous results of not doing anything very well. 

The difficulty in the matter of a history examination set 
and graded by some outside agency has always been to decide 

1 See p. 150. 



MEASURING RESULTS i6i 

just what comprises an adequate test in history. While no 
satisfactory way out of this dilemma has yet been discovered, a 
small contribution toward the solution of the problem was 
made a few years ago by Professor Foster, of Dartmouth 
College.'^ In his inquiry Professor Foster secured the judg- 
ments of thirty-two college or Examination Board readers and 
thirty-three candidates on the 19 13 list as to the one or 
two questions which proved the most adequate tests of 
the students' knowledge of history and their fitness for en- 
trance to college. These same individuals were also asked to 
designate the one or two questions in the same list which 
proved the most inadequate tests of the students' knowledge 
of the subject. As a result of this threefold inquiry Professor 
Foster was able to list a number of both adequate and inade- 
quate tests. The following are a few of the questions proving 
the most adequate and the most inadequate tests in ancient 
and American history : 

ADEQUATE TESTS 

1. Name four Greek colonies ; how was a Greek colony related 
to the parent state? What was the cause for Greek colonization? 

' What was the ultimate fate of the Greek colonies ? 

2. Describe the social, economic, and political life in Sparta in 
the fifth century B.C. Contrast these conditions with those in 
Athens at the same time. 

3. Why did the Sicilian expedition fail ? Why did its failure 
prove more disastrous to Athens than that of the Egyptian expedi- 
tion of the years 460-456 b. c. ? 

4. Why do we study in our schools the civilization of Chaldea, 
although it was overthrown, rather than that of China where an 
ancient civilization still exists ? 

5. What were the causes of Greek colonization? Describe the 
method of founding a colony, and state what the relations of a 
colony were to the mother city. 

^ " Adequate Tests in History," History Teacher'' s Magazme, V, ii6ff. 



1 62 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

6. Compare the rule given to the provinces of Rome under the 
republic with that given under the empire. 

7. How did the problem of foreign relations in the presidencies 
of Washington and John Adams differ from those in the presidencies 
of Monroe and John Quincy Adams ? 

8. What were the principal characteristics of industrial life in 
New England in 1750? in 1830? in 1912? 

9. Indicate on the outline map the area of the states in which 
slavery existed in i860, and of the states which seceded. Explain 
why the areas are not the same. 

10. Mention the leading characteristics of the Jacksonian Period, 
with reference to poHtical life, economic development, and social 
reforms. 

11. Compare the social and industrial conditions in colonial 
Virginia with those in colonial Massachusetts. Indicate the time 
which you describe. Mention the author and title of any books, 
outside your textbook, which you have used on this subject. 

12. Show that you have a definite knowledge of five of the fol- 
lowing, writing at least four or five lines on each : the Webster- 
Hayne debate. Nullification, the Compromise of 1850, the Free 
Silver campaign, commission form of government for cities, 
McKinley tariff act. 

INADEQUATE TESTS 

1. Indicate on the map the independent members of the Delian 
Confederacy at the opening of the Peloponnesian War. 

2. Outline the territorial growth of the Roman Empire from 
the third century B.C. to the second century a.d. Mention five 
important additions of territory and state the circumstances under 
which each was added to the empire. 

3. Give some account of the Roman Twelve Tables and state 
the reason for drawing them up. Give the cause of the First 
Punic War. 

4. Trace the relations between the Romans and the Etruscans 
in the regal period and the early republic. 

5. Describe the rehgious conditions at Rome under the early 
empire. 

6. Write a careful account of the life of Roger Williams. 



MEASURING RESULTS 163 

7. Why is the period 1865- 1871 called the "Reconstruction 
Period"? Answer fully, 

8. Indicate on the outline map the principal changes in routes 
between the Ohio Valley and the seaboard between 1800 and i860. 

9. Mention two important changes in American industries due 
to inventions. Mention two inventions that have aided the rapid 
growth of cities during the past century. State briefly two great 
municipal problems resulting from this rapid growth of cities. 

10. (Answer A or B.) (A) Was the Compromise of 1850 a wise 
or unwise measure ? Give your reasons. (B) Show the important 
differences between the "Reconstruction" poHcy of Johnson and 
that of Congress. 

11. (Answer A or B.) (A) What economic and industrial reasons 
led to the defeat of the South in the Civil War? (B) What 
reasons led to the estabhshment of the Interstate Commerce Com- 
mission, 1887? Describe some of the activities of this Commission. 

12. Contrast economic conditions at the North and the South 
before the Civil War. 

Generally speaking, the questions judged ''most adequate" 
were those which tested both judgment and memory, were 
not too general, and avoided the omnibus type, while the 
least adequate ones were mainly tests of rote memory, were 
too general in character^ and were of the omnibus variety. 
A cursory scrutiny of the questions in the foregoing lists will 
reveal the fact that each type contains these characteristics. 

Because of the fact that the examination as usually admin- 
istered contains so many variables, some attempts have recently 
been made to supplant it with what has come to be called 
"standardized tests." While the movement has made little 
headway in history, some interesting attempts have been 
made in the matter of devising tests in this field. To date 
there are on the market at least half a dozen tests in Amer- 
ican history and one in ancient history. It is too early to 
pass final judgment on any of these efforts. They are in- 
teresting, to say the least. A few, indeed, give promise of 
considerable merit. 



1 64 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Standardized Tests in History 

In reality it is a misnomer to speak of standardized tests 
in history in the sense that they exist in algebra, arithmetic, 
and reading, if one means by the expression 'Hests which have 
been scientifically devised." Generally speaking, "scientifically 
devised" means that the questions or exercises comprising 
standardized tests have been selected and evaluated according 
to a procedure which involves more than mere opinion ; that 
by following specific directions different teachers will assign 
the same rank to the same paper ; that the score made by the 
pupil taking the test has a definite meaning ; and that their 
content is such that they may be used again and again with- 
out destroying their validity. Since none of the tests to date 
in the field of history meets these criteria, one cannot speak 
of them as "standardized tests." In spite of this fact, how- 
ever, the history teacher should be familiar with those now 
available. Some he may be able to use with profit, others 
will possess for him informational value only. 

What seems to be the first attempt at formulating standard- 
ized tests in the field of history was made by Mr. D. F. 
McCollum.^ Since these tests are rather brief, they can be 
inserted in full here. 

A SCALE IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Test I. Dates — Events (4 minutes) : 1861, 1789, 1620, 1565, 
1898, 1492, 1619, 1783, 1776, 1846. This is a list of dates, opposite 
each of which you write some great event that happened on that 
date. 

Test II. (a) Men — Events (5 'minutes) : This is a list of 
men. In just a sentence tell who each was or what great thing 
he did. (6) Men, Chronological order (2 minutes) : Number the 

^ First published in the Texas History Teachers' Bulletin, Vol. Ill 
(1915), No. 2, pp. 38 ff. ; and later in Jojirnal of Educational Psychol- 
ogy, VIII (1917), 257 ff. They can be secured in quantities from the 
University of Texas, Austin, Texas. 



MEASURING RESULTS 165 

men in chronological order (that is, the man that came first in 
history in point of time you are to number i, the next 2, etc.) : 
John Burgoyne, Alexander Hamilton, Jefferson Davis, Walter 
Raleigh, John C. Calhoun, Cyrus H. McCormick, George Dewey, 
Sam Houston, Roger WiUiams, and James Oglethorpe. 

Test III. Events — Men (3 minutes) : This is a list of great 
events, each of which was accomplished by a man. Write the 
name of the man in each case : captured Quebec during the French 
and Indian War; wrote the Declaration of Independence; invented 
the telephone; brought about the Missouri Compromise; captured 
the City of Mexico during the Mexican War ; founded the Colony 
of Maryland ; made a great speech against the English Stamp Tax ; 
was president of the United States during the Civil War ; vetoed 
the rechartering of the United States Bank. 

Test IV. Historic Terms (7 minutes) : Test IV is a list of 
historic terms, each of which you will define in a short sentence : 
Second Continental Congress ; Lewis and Clark expedition ; Articles 
of Confederation ; Sherman Antitrust Law ; Monroe Doctrine ; 
Fugitive Slave Law ; Dred Scott Decision ; Alien and Sedition 
Laws ; Nullification Ordinance of South Carolina ; Emancipation 
Proclamation. 

Test V. Political Parties (5 minutes) : Test V is a blank 
sheet. On it you will make a list of all the political parties that 
have arisen in the United States since the Revolution, and state 
one leading principle advocated by each. 

Test VI. Divisions of United States History (5 minutes) : 
On the next sheet, also a blank, you will divide the history of the 
United States into a number of great divisions or epochs, giving 
date of each period. 

Test VII. Map Study (s minutes) : Show, by drawing on the 
outline map, the land boundaries of the United States at the close 
of the Revolution, and also indicate the different acquisitions of 
territory since that date. 

Tests similar to McCollum's have been worked out in the 
field of ancient history by Professor L. W. Sackett, of the 
University of Texas. The following is a list of Sackett's 
tests. 



1 66 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

A SCALE IN ANCIENT HISTORY i 

Test No. I. For what are the following men noted : (i) Hannibal ? 
(2) Khufu or Cheops? (3) Demosthenes? (4) Darius? (5) Solon? 

(6) Charlemagne? (7) Attila ? (8) Constantine ? (9) Mithridates ? 
(10) Justinian ? 

Test No. II. Name a man noted in ancient history for each 
of the following: (i) orator; (2) painter; (3) sculptor; (4) histo- 
rian; (5) lawgiver; (6) philosopher; (7) general; (8) ruler (king, 
emperor, etc.) ; (9) builder; (10) poet. 

Test No. III. Give the historical significance of each of the follow- 
ing : (i) Battle of Tours ; (2) Age of Augustus ; (3) Battle of Mil- 
vian Bridge ; (4) the church council of Nicsea ; (5) check of the 
Saracens before Constantinople ; (6) reign of Alexander the Great ; 

(7) Age of Pericles; (8) founding of the Hebrew monarchy; 

(9) burning of Carthage ; (10) Peloponnesian War. 

Test No. IV. Between whom were the following battles fought : 
(i)Arbela? (2) Marathon? (3) Metaurus ? (4) Teutoburg Forest ? 
(5) Chalons ? Name the victor in each case. 

Test No. V. Give the approximate date of each of the following : 
(i) fall of Rome; (2) Battle of Marathon; (3) crowning of 
Charlemagne ; (4) establishment of the Saracen Kingdom in Spain ; 

(5) Delian League ; (6) the Hegira ; (7) defeat of Saracens by the 
Germans ; (8) Battle of Actium ; (9) defeat of Persians by Alex^ 
ander ; (10) establishment of the Roman Empire. 

Test No. VI. What do you consider the most important contrir 
bution to civilization from these peoples: (i) Greeks? (2) Teu- 
tons ? (3) Phoenicians ? (4) Saracens and Arabians ? (5) Romans ? 

(6) Hebrews? (7) Persians? (8) Egyptians? (9) Babylonians? 

(10) prehistoric man? 

Test No. VII. Mark each of the following peoples as being 
Hamitic, Semitic, or Aryan : (i) Greeks ; (2) Egyptians ; (3) Ro- 
mans ; (4) Hebrews ; (5) Hindus ; (6) Babylonians ; (7) Teutons ; 

(8) Assyrians; (9) Phoenicians; (10) Persians. 

1 For a full discussion of this scale ?,&t. Journal of Ediicatio7tal Psychology, 
VIII, 284 ff. 



MEASURING RESULTS 167 

Test No. VIII. Name and mark the geographical locations on 
the accompanying map of ten points that you think were most im- 
portant in ancient history. [Here was inserted an outline map of 
the Mediterranean World.] 

It takes but little scrutinizing of the foregoing tests to dis- 
cover wherein they fail when considered in the light of the 
recent testing movement. Some serious adverse criticisms of 
them when they are thought of as scales to be used again and 
again are (i) their usefulness is destroyed if the teacher and 
the pupils see them in advance, because by a few hours spent 
in drill or study the answers to each test could be worked out 
and committed ; ( 2 ) too much emphasis is placed on the test- 
ing of the memory; (3) there is no certainty that the facts 
called for are the most important ones within the fields of 
history in question ; (4) some of the tests cannot be completed 
in the allotted time ; ( 5 ) the facts called for are not sufficiently 
standardized to make it possible to grade the answers with 
enough uniformity; (6) in their present crude form they are 
of little practical value to history teachers. Their potential 
value seems to be in their probable inspirational effect. They 
also serve to emphasize the fact that the making of standard- 
ized tests in history involves more labor and historical acumen 
than some people interested in the movement seem to realize. 

Since McCollum's effort to construct tests in American 
history five other attempts have been made in this field. 
American History Test — Series A,^ prepared by Professor 
Daniel Starch, of the University of Wisconsin, is composed of 
a number of incomplete historical statements to be completed 
by the one taking it. The entire list of exercises is too long 
to reproduce in full. The directions and the first ten of the 
sixty-nine items will serve to illustrate the nature of the test 
and the general principle underlying it. 

1 The other four are C. L. Harlan, Test of Information in American History; 
S. B. Davis, Exercises in United States History, Colonial Period; A. S. Barr, 
Diagnostic Tests in Am.erican History ; and M. J. Van Wagenen, American 
History Scales. 



1 68 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

STARCH'S AMERICAN HISTORY TEST- SERIES Ai 

Fill in as many of the blank spaces as you can. Read each 
statement through completely before you attempt to supply the 
missing parts. Place yourself historically in each case. Take as 
much time as you need. 

1. discovered America in 1492. 

2. John Cabot, exploring for the in 1497, 

landed on the coast and claimed the country for 



3- sailed around the globe in 1519- 

1521. 

4 discovered the Mississippi River in 

1541. 

5. Two expeditions sent out by to settle Virginia, 

in 1585 and 1587 respectively, failed. 

6. T .:-^ - was governor of Virginia after 

Delaware^ left. 

7. L-_ , in service of the Dutch East India 

Company, explored the .__l_— . River in 1609. 

8. was governor of the Dominion of 

New England, which was composed of (i) 1 , 

(2)..j..Al , and (3) 

9. John Winthrop came to America in 1630. and settled 



10. New Hampshire was founded in 



While Harlan calls his effort a Test of Injormation in Amer- 
ican History, it involves in reality reasoning as well. Ten 
exercises are included in the test, two of which are concerned 
with historical personages, two with dates-events, one each 
with historic terms, places, topics, and causes, and two are 
reasoning exercises. The general principle underlying the test 
as a whole may be detected from the three exercises which 
follow. It will be observed that the completion idea used by 
Starch also appears here but in a somewhat easier form. 

1 Order from the author, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 



MEASURING RESULTS 169 

HARLAN'S TEST OF INFORMATION IN AMERICAN HISTORY 1 

Exercise I 

At the right of the page are the names of some men mentioned 
in American History. Fill in blanks with the names which properly 
belong there. 

Scovs 

I. America was discovered by 



the close of the fifteenth 
century. 

2. The name of the man who is Jefferson 

supposed to have discovered CornwaUis 

the Pacific Ocean is .. Wm. Penn 

Lafayette 

3. The first president of the United Patrick Henry 

States was Columbus 

4. is the Benjamin Franklin 

name of a distinguished Washington 
Frenchman who aided the John Cabot 
colonists in securing their in- Balboa 
dependence. 

5. surren- 
dered to the colonial troops 
at Yorktown. 

Exercise IV 

Tell the very first thing you would do under each of the follow- 
ing conditions, also what you would do next. 

ScofC 

I. If a neighbor were to present to you for your signa- 
ture a petition to have some man removed from 
pubhc office, — 

What would you do first? 

Would you sign the petition? 

^ Published by Northwestern School Supply Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 



170 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

2. If a man imprisoned in the county jail for some 
serious crime should be taken out by a mob with 
the intention of hanging him, — 

What ought to be done first? 

Then what? 

Exercise VI 
Give the year in which the following events occurred, — 



14 "^ 



Score 

1. Discovery of American 

2. Signing of the Declaration of Independence £i!^_4!..Qri (* 

3. Settlement of Jamestown, Va. __Li£_y.__\ 

4. Settlement of Plymouth Colony .Jj^..*?:..?....^ 

5. First battle of American Revolution __i'3.-Ti.W- 

There is one other type of tests in American history to 
which some attention should be given before passing to another 
phase of the subject. Instead of blanks to fill, persons to 
identify, and dates to remember as in the foregoing tests, this 
one asks the pupil to underscore the correct one of a number 
of given answers. The first ten exercises will illustrate the 
idea underlying the tests. 

DAVIS'S EXERCISES IN UNITED STATES HISTORY, 
COLONIAL PERIOD 

1. The Mayflower was a chapel, hall, hotel, plant, queen, ship. 

2. Miles Standish led in fighting the Dutch, Indians, Puritans, 
Swedes. 

3. Roger Williams founded the colony of Ga., Md., Mass., 
N.C., N.J., Pa., RJ., S.C, Va. 

4. The Patroons were Dutch fishermen, fur traders, land- 
qsmers, miners, preachers, teachers. 

5. Thomas Hooker led emigrants from Mass., to found Conn., 
Del., Ga., Md., N.J., N.Y. 

6. The first college founded was Brown, Harvard, Pennsyl- 
vania, Princeton, William and Mary, Yale. 



MEASURING RESULTS 171 

7. The Witchcraft delusion occurred among the Baptists, 
Catholics, Dutch, Indians, Puritans. 

8. John Berkeley and George Cartaret once owned Conn., Del., 
Ga., Md., Mass., N.H., NJ., Pa. 

9. The principal native food crop was barley, corn, oats, pota- 
toes, rice, rye, wheat. 

10. The Mason and Dixon Line was established between Pa. and 
Del., Md., N.J., N.Y., Ohio. 

In giving a correct answer to the above the student would be 
expected to underscore the word "ship" in i, '^Indians" in 2, 
"R.I." in 3, "landowners" in 4, "Conn." in 5, "Harvard" in 6, 
"Puritans" in 7, "N.J." in 8, "corn" in g, and "Md." in lo.^ 

Some of the same adverse criticisms apply to the Starch, 
Harlan, and Davis tests that were directed against those of 
McCollum and Sackett. The chief weaknesses in all five of 
these tests are : ( i ) The absolute importance of the information 
called for has not been scientifically established. Almost any 
number of tests could be constructed as these have been, all of 
which would have equal claims to merit. (2) If either the 
students or the teacher see the tests in advance of their ap- 
plication, their value disappears, for with little effort on the 
part of the student or drill on the part of the teacher, the idea 
back of all such tests would be wholly upset. (3) The matter 
of grading seems to present insuperable difficulties, since some 
of the tests admit of so many correct answers.^ 

1 Order these exercises from S. B. Davis, University of Pittsburgh, 
Pittsburgh, Pa. 

^ While not a test in a sense of the foregoing, mention should be made 
here of the work of B. R. Buckingham in trying to determine the correlation 
between the ability to think and the ability to remember. For the questions 
Mr. Buckingham used in his study as well as a brief report of the result, 
see School and Society, V, 443 ff. Mention should also be made of the his- 
tory tests Buckingham used in his survey of the Gary and prevocational 
schools in New York City in March and June, 1915. The questions used 
in this survey and the results as well may be found in " Survey of the 
Gary and Prevocational Schools," a part of the seventeenth annual report 
of the City Superintendent of Schools, 1914-1915. 



172 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

It is one thing to criticize adversely the tests in history now 
available and quite a different thing to propose remedies to 
obliterate these objections. The writer believes that the latter 
undertaking is quite within the range of possibilities. To be 
comprehensive, standardized tests in history must emphasize 
something . other than information or memory. Generally 
speaking, they ought to test what the student actually knows 
of the subject as well as his ability to do such things as 
comprehend and reproduce a coherent historical narrative, 
analyze a paragraph or a page of history, apply historic truths 
to social situations, organize a given collection of facts, and 
recognize in given facts differing degrees of probability. Fur- 
thermore, the student's conception of time and place relations, 
his power to construct from oral or written descriptions con- 
crete pictures of historic places and scenes — in other words, 
what is often spoken of as historical sense and historical- 
mindedness — must be analyzed with great care, and tests 
must be constructed on the basis of the information attained. 

In reality the first step in the construction of adequate and 
comprehensive tests in history has never been taken by any of 
the investigators to date. This step is scientifically to deter- 
mine the particularized objectives of history teaching in each 
unit of instruction in the subject. After this task has been 
performed so that it will successfully withstand a reasonable 
number of legitimate tests, the matter of measuring the success 
of a teacher in arriving at the predetermined objectives will 
be one of small dimensions. Of course if the objectives should 
include a specific quantity of knowledge of the subject, as 
they no doubt would, then the matter of determining what is 
worth remembering in each unit or field of history would have 
to be settled, which in itself would involve an immense amount 
of labor. For example, the investigator in determining the 
facts of most value in United States history would have to get 
at the matter from a number of angles, the chief ones being: 
(i) analyze the current textbooks in the field in order to 



MEASURING RESULTS 173 

determine the dates-events, personages, and other facts of 
most importance according to their authors ; ( 2 ) examine 
current literature in order to learn what historical background 
the reader would need to peruse it understandingly ; (3) ask 
persons in business and professional life the facts of history 
which most often come into their lives as they go about their 
daily work; (4) submit to be arranged in the order of 
importance tentative lists of events and personages and 
similar material to trained historians and to experienced 
teachers of history in all schools above and including the 
junior high ; ( 5 ) examine a large number of students just 
completing the study of United States history in either the 
grades or the high school in order to find out what facts have 
been most emphasized by their teachers. By throwing together 
the results of comprehensive studies along all of these lines, 
an investigator would be able to construct an information test 
in history with some semblance of finality and permanent 
value. 

In order to meet one of the very vital objections to the 
information tests now in the field, namely, that they may 
prove useless if the student or teacher sees them in advance, a 
test . resulting from the foregoing studies would need to be 
either so long that it could not be administered, or constructed 
in such a way that selections could be made from it. For 
example, suppose the list of important things in United States 
history should turn out to contain 1000 items, a test could be 
constructed by selecting a certain number of them. One could 
not prepare specifically for such a test, for one would never 
know just what items it would include. Of course, one could 
prepare for it in a general way by familiarizing himself with 
each item on the complete list, which would be entirely legiti- 
mate, inasmuch as one of the legitimate objectives in any study 
is a knowledge of the important facts therein. 

Neither the preliminary work relative to nor the actual con- 
struction and the administering of tests in history other than 



174 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

those of the strictly informational type seem so formidable 
as does the procedure outlined above. For example, suppose 
one desires to test the student's ability to comprehend a coher- 
ent historical narrative or his power along the line of construc- 
tive imagination, reasoning, discrimination, applying historic 
truths to social situations, and the like, it does not seem im- 
possible to formulate adequate tests of these abilities and 
powers. The chief difficulty one would encounter in construct- 
ing tests of this character would be to make them something 
besides the ordinary general ability or reading tests. The mere 
use of historical data might not satisfy the psychologist that 
mainly historical abilities and powers were tested. In spite of 
this difficulty, however, the construction of history tests of this 
nature seems to be both a virgin and a fertile field for investi- 
gation by those interested in the measurement movement.^ 

The diagnostic value of the kind of a test anticipated above, 
if scientifically constructed, seems never to have been realized 
by history teachers. Suppose adequate tests were in existence 
to determine the abilities and powers, mentioned in the fore- 
going paragraph, of all the beginners in high-school history. 
These would be of great value, if wisely administered, in classi- 
fying the students on the basis of their historical abilities and 
powers. If some were weak in constructive imagination, they 
could be given special training along this line, and likewise with 
weaknesses which such tests would reveal in other historical 
abilities and mental powers. 

1 Some tests which are more than informational in character are Diag- 
nostic Tests ill American Histojy, arranged by A. S. Barr, and American 
Histo7y Scales by M. J. Van Wagenen. The former can be secured from 
James Watson and Co., 6i8 Sherman St., Chicago, 111., and the latter from 
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. These tests did not 
appear in time to receive the critical consideration that was given the 
others. It should be said, however, that Barr is attempting to test compre- 
hension, chronological judgment, historical evidence, evaluation of facts, 
and causal relationships (inference). While he does not attempt to wholly 
eliminate the informational factors, his tests deal primarily with powers 
(abilities) involved in the baring process of history. 



MEASURING RESULTS 175 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Bell and McCollum. "A Study of Attainments of Pupils in United 
States History," Journal of Educational Psychology, VIII (1916), 
257 ff. 

Buckingham, B. R. "Correlation between Ability to Think and Ability 
to Remember, with Special Reference to United States History," 
School and Society, V (1917), 443 ff. 

Gathany, J. M. "The Giving of History Examinations," Edtication, 
XXXIV (1914), Si4ff- 

Johnson, Henry. "The History Examination," chap, xvi in The Teach- 
ing of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools. The Macmillan 
Company, 1915. 

Osgood, Ellen L. "Some Experiments in a New Type of History 
Examination," History Teacher's Magazine, IX (1918), 337 ff. 

Sackett, L. W. "A Scale in Ancient History," The Journal of Educa- 
tional Psychology, VIII (1916), 284 ff. 

Van Vv^agenen, M. J. Historical Information and Judgment in Pupils 
of Elementary Schools. Teachers College, Columbia University, 1919. 



CHAPTER IX 

LIBRARY AND COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 

With the coming of the topical and other modern methods 
of teaching high-school history there arose a need for material 
in addition to that which the text contained. Accompanying 
this necessity were such major problems as the valid aims and 
purposes of collateral reading, the selection of suitable reading 
matter, and the technic of effective management. Some of 
the minor problems were the kijids of reading most suitable, 
the kinds required and kinds optional, the quantity of reading, 
how to assign and how to check, and the guiding principles 
for selecting a high-school history library. This chapter is 
devoted to a consideration of these major and minor problems. 

Valid Aims or Purposes of Collateral Reading 

Two valid objectives in good history teaching which require 
the use of collateral reading for their attainment are to 
create a life interest in the subject of history and to establish 
a permanent taste fo^ubstantial historical reading. Neither 
of these objectives can be successfully attained if the teacher 
has no books other than the text. In truth, wherever such a. 
scarcity of material exists there is great danger of creating an 
aversion for, rather than a life interest in, the subject of history. 
Unless the teacher has a variety of types of material he cannot 
appeal to the individuality of the different members of the 
class. This type of appeal is essential in creating life interests 
and permanent tastes, both of which become of vast importance 
when thought of in connection with the quantity and kind 
of reading done during life's leisure hours. Since so many of 

176 



COLLATEEIAL-READING PROBLEMS 177 

these hours are spent in reading history, it becomes a very 
practical problem to teach history in such a way that the 
teacher is able to direct in a measure the reading of his 
pupils after they leave his classes. To do this, of course, 
will require much care in selecting and much ingenuity in 
managing collateral reading. 

To create a critical attitude and to stimulate independent 
judgment are other worthy aims which cannot be successfully 
accomplished without some use of collateral reading, because 
the student has too meager a basis for a critical attitude and 
an independent judgment concerning a historical event when 
he has access to but one account of it. Frequent occasions to 
read and compare different narratives give the pupil oppor- 
tunities for cultivating a critical attitude and for forming 
independent judgments. Inasmuch as the attainment of these 
two objectives will be of practical value to the student in the 
reading that he does when his school days are over, they 
should be constantly in the mind of the teacher when he 
selects and assigns the collateral reading to be done in con- 
nection with each course. 

To teach those^ iiL.his classes how to use books and to give 
them directed practice in the application of this knowledge 
are two of the greatest opportunities of a history teacher. 
In a democracy like our own where each individual has so 
many opportunities for independent thinking and reading, there 
is particular need of training in the use of some of the most 
fundamental tools of education whether in school or out of 
school. It is a highly desirable accomplishment to be able to 
get with minimum effort from a number of iDooks all they 
contain on a definite point. There is no other subject in the 
curriculum which offers such a profusion of occasions for train- 
ing along this line. Other subjects may give the student many 
rules and regulations on the use of books, but it is in the 
well-taught history courses that he has the opportunities for 
putting into practice his knowledge of how to read effectively. 



178 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

It is quite obvious that training in the use of books cannot be 
given when the pupil has access to but one volume in his- 
history work. Herein lies one of the strongest arguments for 
a high-school history library. 

Another objective of collateral reading is to acquaint the 
pupils with the diverse forms in which historical materials 
are recorded. To secure this acquaintance the student should 
have access to the following types of material : fuller narrative 
accounts than the one his text contains, biography, letters and 
diaries, books of travel, reminiscences, historical novels, mem- 
oirs, chronicles, legends, stories, myths, and fairy tales, news- 
papers, and magazines. In his contact with each of these 
forms the student will learn the features common to two or 
more of them as well as the attributes peculiar to each. This 
training will be of direct value to him in selecting, character- 
izing, classifying, evaluating, and criticizing the historical mate- 
rial which he reads after school hours. 

To attain the foregoing worth-while ends it will be necessary 
for the students to do certain things during their journey 
through the history course. Chief among these are : consult 
books of history other than the text ; consult some of them 
while preparing daily lessons; work up some topics quite 
thoroughly and do a little constructive work ; read some his- 
torical fiction and much current history ; and come in 
contact with the manifold forms in which historical materials 
are recorded. Unless a student meets a portion or all of 
these specific requirements during his career in high-school his- 
tory, he will miss some of the most practical and fundamental 
training which the proper study of the subject has to offer. 

Before passing to some other problems relative to collateral 
reading it will be worth our while to consider some of the 
so-called valid objections to it. It is often said that in actual 
practice the teacher instead of developing a love for historical 
literature turns out students with an aversion to it. They are 
sick and tired of history, hence do not care to have any more to 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 179 

do with it. The trouble here is not so much in collateral read- 
ing per se as in the kind selected and required. The following 
story illustrates this point : 

A young man from the country, who had become a clerk in a 
mercantile house in the city, was desirous of improving his mind 
and he wisely thought he could do it by reading history. But he did 
not know what books to read. He therefore asked the advice 
of an intelligent, educated lawyer. The gentleman was greatly in- 
terested in the young man, asked him to call again, and promised to 
make out for him a course of historical reading. Thanking the 
lawyer he retired, and after a lapse of a few days he called at the 
office for the list. The learned man drew out from a desk drawer 
a sheet of paper, on which he had written a list of historical works 
which he recommended the young man to read. The list included 
the following : 

Thucydides, Herodotus, Plutarch's Lives, Rollin's Ancient His- 
tory, Grote's Greece, Gibbon's Rome, Hume's England, Macaulay's 
England, Guizot's History, Motley's Dutch Republic, Bancroft's 
United States, Hildreth's United States, Palfrey's New England, 
MacMaster's American People. 

The young man thanked his friend, took his list, and, on his way 
to his boarding place, stopped at the bookstore and bought a set 
of Rollin's Ancient History. He never succeeded in reading a single 
column of the work. He now has a large and well-selected library, 
but Rollin is stored away in the attic.^ 

The lawyer in this case made the mistake that many well- 
meaning history teachers make, namely, that of giving an over- 
whelming list to begin with and of suggesting material not 
adapted to the reader. The quantity and the quality of the 
collateral-reading work are the controlling ideals of too many 
history teachers. Could anyone blame the young man for not 
reading Rollin's Ancient History ? Is there any wonder that 
high-school pupils often leave the history classes with a feeling 
of never-any-more-history-for-me when they are required to 

1 Mowry, "The Teaching"of History," A7?ierican Education, XVII, 145. 



i8o THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

read a huge quantity of material far beyond their capacity to 
comprehend and to enjoy ? 

Other so-called valid objections to collateral reading in his- 
tory, especially as it is sometimes administered, are (i) but 
one student comes in contact with the ideas in any particular 
assignment ; (2) students fail to absorb what they read ; (3) so 
much time is consumed in taking notes on the reading that 
other valuable work must be neglected ; (4) the supplementary 
reading has no direct bearing on the lesson of the day ; and 
(5) no adequate test for such work has ever been devised. 
Since all of these objections relate to the problem of how best 
to manage collateral reading, which is discussed in the last 
section of this chapter, no further consideration need be given 
them here. 

Some Guiding Principles for selecting Collateral- 
Reading Material 

Suppose the teacher has decided upon the main ends to be 
attained through a proper use of collateral reading and has 
tabulated the objections, the problem now uppermost in his 
mind should be how to select material to accomplish the 
purposes and meet the objections. Teachers often face this 
problem in a very practical way when asked to make additions 
to an already moderately well-equipped historical library or, 
a more difficult task, to select books for a new one. Great 
responsibility accompanies either of these requests. To do this 
work effectively the history teacher must decide upon some well- 
defined standard of selection. When he has decided upon this, 
the remainder of the work will be merely a matter of application. 

The principles that the teacher will need to apply in selecting 
suitable collateral-reading material are both general and special. 
Some safe general standards to apply to each book are that tjie 
style must be both intelligent and interesting to the adolescent 
mind and that the book must be scholarly and bear directly 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS i8i 

upon some phase of history work ; it should also be somewhat 
inexpensive and nontechnical. The special guiding principles 
which the teacher might apply are (i) select a list of topics ; 
in each field of history taught in the high school, then let this \ 
list determine the collateral reading ; ( 2 ) select material on the \ 
basis of the use to be made of it ; (3) select wholly on the Y 

basis of the types of books ; and (4) select the few best books in | 
each field with the idea of duplicating them to such an extent / 
that each book will be accessible to and used by the class as 
a whole. A brief discussion and a few examples of these 
principles will make them clear. 

Selecting the big topics in any field of history and permitting 
them to determine in most part the books for collateral 
reading is a method worthy of serious consideration. It finds 
its parallel in physics, where there is almost uniform agreement 
as to the experiments to be performed in a high-school course, 
hence there arises equal uniformity in the matter of laboratory 
equipment necessary to perform these experiments. Now, if 
an agreement could be reached as to the big topics in each 
field of high-school history, there would be some basis for 
uniformity in the matter of library equipment, a condition 
worth striving for, since history teachers as a rule change 
their positions all too frequently and must therefore learn to 
use a new set of reference books with each new position.^ 

Should the history teacher decide to select material for col- 
lateral reading on the basis of the use to be made of it, he could 
accept Professor Johnson's types of material and look for 
books embodying them. In doing this he would look for 
( I ) materials to add elements of reality ; ( 2 ) materials to add 
information as information ; (3) materials to make history 
interesting and inspiring ; (4) materials to give acquaintance 
with historical literature ; and ( 5 ) materials to illustrate the 

1 For a list of references in the field of ancient history selected accord- 
ing to this principle, see Dickerson and others, Library Equipment for 
Teaching Histo7y in Minjzesota High Schools, pp. 15 ff. 



1 82 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

historical methods of study .^ Viewed from the standpoint of 
use, the first type of material would be read for impressions and 
atmosphere. No notes would be taken on it and no effort 
would be made to remember it. The use of the second type is 
suggested by the word "information." This material would 
become an integral part of the daily work and be treated as 
the textbook is treated ; it would be outlined, placed in the 
notebook, and learned and recited just as the textbook is. 
The difficult task here is to find material that is adapted to the 
capacities of high-school students, for most of the informational 
material in its present form is on the college level. 

Professor Johnson would have the last three of his types of 
material utilized as follows : tha^sed pri maril y to ma ke his- 
tory interesting should be treated merely as good reading ; 
that used primarily to acquaint the student with historical 
literature should be treated in such a way as to emphasize 
the record and the recorder rather than what is recorded ; 
and that used primarily to illustrate the historical method 
should be treated as material for written work to be handed 
in or for oral discussion in class. To acquire a working 
knowledge of how to use each of Professor Johnson's types 
of collateral-reading material, it will be necessary for the 
teacher to read his somewhat elaborate discussion of them. 

A library selected on the basis of the third special principle 
mentioned above would contain the following types of books : 
( I ) parallel texts ; ( 2 ) one- volume narratives with a fuller 
account than the text ; (3) books dealing with a definite period, 
topic, or movement ; (4) biography, collective and individual ; 
(5) books treating social, industrial, and economic life; (6) con- 
stitutional, political, .and diplomatic discussions ; ( 7 ) collections 
of documents and sources of a varied nature; (8) reminis- 
cences, travel, diaries, letters, and similar records of everyday 
life; (9) atlases, abstracts, and similar material; (10) his- 
torical fiction and poetry. It is quite possible, of course, 

^ Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools, p. 330. 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 183 

that one might have each of these types in a library selected 
according to the second special principle mentioned above ; 
for practical purposes, however, the principle of selection under 
discussion here seems to have some advantages over both of 
the first two. In the first place, the names of the types are 
in terms of existing books ; that is, one can actually find a 
number of books in each field of high-school history which can 
be readily classified under each of the foregoing types. In 
the second place, as a library-standardizing agency this prin- 
ciple seems superior to the first two, for with each of the 
types well in mind a teacher could in a short time survey his 
high-school history library and find out wherein it was short 
on some types and long on others ; or in making out a list of 
books for a new history library a teacher by means of such a 
scheme could make sure that he was covering the field and 
at the same time selecting books in some definite proportion. 
In order to show how this third principle works out in the 
field of American history the types are repeated below with 
from two to four examples under each. 

A SMALL CLASSIFIED HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY IN 
AMERICAN HISTORY 

I. Parallel Texts. 

I. FoRMAN. Advanced American History. The Century Co., 
1914. 
/ 2. McLaughlin. A History of the American Nation. 
D. Appleton and Company, 1913. 

3. Montgomery. Student's American History (Second 

Revised Edition). Ginn and Company, 19 16. 

4. Muzzey. An American History (Revised Edition). Ginn 

and Company, 1920. 
II. One-Volume Narratives with a Fuller Account than 
the Text. 
I. Bassett. a Short History of the United States. The 
Macmillan Company, 1913. 



1 84 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

2. Elson. History of the United States. The Macmillan 
Company, 1904. 
III. Books treating a Definite Period, Topic, or Movement. 
I. Hitchcock. The Louisiana Purchase and the Explora- 
tion, Early History, and Building of the West. Ginn 
and Company, 1903. 

2. Tryon. Household Manufactures in the United States. 

The University of Chicago Press, 191 7. 

3. Brigham. Geographic Injliiences in American History. 

Ginn and Company, 1903. 
IV. Biography, Collective and Individual. 

1. Morris. Heroes of Progress in America. J. B. Lippin^ 

cott Company, 1906. 

2. Mace. Lincoln, the Man of the People. Rand, McNally 

& Company, 19 13. 
V. Books treating Social, Industrial, and Economic Life. 

1. Hunt. Life in America 100 years ago {18 15). Harper & 

Brothers, 1914. 

2. Callender. Selections from the Economic History of 

the United States. Ginn and Company, 1909. 

3. Moore. An Industrial History of the American People. 

The Macmillan Company, 1913. 
VI. Constitutional, Political, and Diplomatic Discussions. 

1. Fess. History of Political Theory and Party Organization 

in the United States. Ginn and Company, 1910. 

2. Foster. A Century of American Diplomacy. Houghton 

Mififlin Company, 1900. 

3. McKee. National- Conventions and Platforms of All 

Political Parties, iy8g-igo4. Friedenwald & Co., 1904. 
VII. Collections of Documents and Sources of a Similar 
Nature. 

1. Muzzey. Readings in American History. Ginn and Com- 

pany, 191 5. 

2. MacDonald, Documentary Source Book of American 

History. The Macmillan Company, 1908. 
VIII. Reminiscences, Travel, Diaries, Letters, and Similar 
Records of Contemporary Life and Manners. 
I. BuRNABY. Travels in America, Wessels, 1904. 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 185 

2. HowELLS. Recollections of Life in Ohio, 1814-1840. 

R. Clarke & Co., i8gs. 

3. Chestnut. Diary from Dixie. D. Appleton and Com- 

pany, 1905. 

4. Crevecceur. Letters from an American Farmer. E. P. 

Button & Company (Everyman's Library). 
IX. Atlases, Abstracts, and Similar Material. 

1. Groscup. Synchronic Chart of United States History. 

Windsor Pub. Co., 191 2. 

2. Statistical Abstract of the United States. Published annu- 

ally. Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce 
and Labor, Washington. 
X. Historical Fiction and Poetry. 

1. Austin. Standish of Standish. Houghton Mifflin Com- 

pany, 1890. ("A tale of the Pilgrims of Plymouth 
Colony in the 17th Century.") 

2. Broadhurst and Rhodes (compilers). Verse for Patriots. 

J. B. Lippincott Company, 19 19. 

The fourth special criterion which a teacher might use in 
selecting collateral-reading material is limiting in its nature. 
In fact, the matter selected with it as a guide might be prac- 
tically the same as that included under Professor Johnson's 
material to add information as information. However, in the 
actual selection of the ten or twelve best reference books for 
any particular history course the principle need not be so 
narrowly interpreted as to give but one kind of material. In 
truth, the ten or twelve books might include one or more of 
each of the ten types mentioned under principle three above. 
Such an application of the principle would provide a more 
valuable working library than would be secured if all 
of the books were those of the strictly informational type. 
The varied kinds of material that might be included in a 
library selected according to the principle under discussion is 
illustrated in the following twelve books in European history 
since 1648. 



1 86 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

A TWELVE-BOOK HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY IN EUROPEAN 
HISTORY SINCE 1648 

1. Robinson and Beard. Development of Modern Europe, 
Vol. II. Ginn and Company, 19 18. 

2. Hayes. A Political and Social History of Modern Europe, 
Vol. II. The Macmillan Company, 1916. 

3. Usher. The Story of the Great War. The Macmillan Com- 
pany, 1 919. 

4. Hazen. Fifty Years of Europe. Henry Holt and Com- 
pany, 19 1 9. 

5. Gibbons. The New Map of Europe (4th ed.). The Century 
Co., 1915. 

6. Herrick. History of Commerce and Industry. The Mac- 
millan Company, 191 7. 

7. Lowell. The Eve of the French Revolution. Houghton 
Mifflin Company, 1892. 

8. Webster. General History of Commerce. Ginn and Com- 
pany, 19 18. 

9. Ogg. Economic Development of Modern Europe. The 
Macmillan Company, 191 7. 

10. ScHAPiRO. Modern and Contemporary European History. 
Houghton Mifflin Company, 19 18. 

11. Seignobos. History of Contemporary Civilization. Charles 
Scribner's Sons, 1909. 

12. Robinson. Readings in European History, Vol. II. Ginn 
and Company, 1906. 

The idea back of a small library such as the one made up 
of the twelve books listed above is that each volume in it is 
selected with such great care that it can be duplicated with 
profit. If each book in the list were duplicated to the extent 
of one volume to each four or five history students, all of 
them would be accessible to the major portion of a class. 
At any rate they could be rather well known by the different 
members of the class on completing the course, because of the 
abundant opportunities for using them. There may not be 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 187 

twelve books in each field of high-school history worth du- 
plicating. Those given above are presented more as an example 
of the principle under discussion than as volumes truly worth 
duplicating in a high-school library in modern European history. 
An almost ideal scheme would seem to be to have a library 
made up on the basis of principles three and four. In build- 
ing a new history library it would seem well to begin with the 
ten or twelve best books in the various fields of high-school 
history. After these had been duplicated to such an extent 
that they could actually be used every day, it would be time 
to enlarge the basis of selection and secure representatives of 
each type mentioned under principle three. After beginning 
on this basis it would only be necessary to add certain books 
from year to year, keeping the various types in a justifiable 
proportion. This would avoid overloading a library with 
material of one kind at the expense of other valuable types. 

Management of Collateral Reading 

To some history teachers efficient management of collateral 
reading is no problem, because they have no material other 
than that the text contains on which to base their work. To 
those teachers, however, who do have ample library facilities 
at their command, how to use and manage these facilities in 
order to secure maximum results is a practical problem which 
seems to have been satisfactorily solved. In fact, the main 
problem breaks itself up into at least four minor ones : ( i ) the 
kinds of collateral reading to be required and the kinds to 
be optional ; ( 2 ) the amount to be required in each course in 
history; (3) how the reading is to be assigned; and (4) how 
it is to be tested. Any serious attempt to use collateral reading 
in connection with history work will have to concern itself with 
all four of these problems ; and some decision relative to each 
of them will have to be made before any effective work in 
collateral reading can be done. 



1 88 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

The kinds of collateral reading are too frequently determined 
by a library selected without much thought or due considera- 
tion of the existing different types of books or materials. In 
all such cases the practical thing for the history teacher to do 
is to classify very closely the available material and to deter- 
mine wherein his present equipment is lacking. When he has 
done this, new purchases can be made on the basis of these 
findings. It is quite obvious that a requirement of a certain 
kind of material from the whole class must not precede the 
acquisition of an ample supply of this required reading. Grant- 
ing, however, that all problems of this nature have been solved, 
the questions as to what readings are to be required of all 
mernbers of the class and what ones are to be optional still 
remain. Generally speaking, the material contained in the 
twelve-book library mentioned above should be required ; not 
all of it by any means, but certainly enough to make the daily 
work meaningful and concrete. Inasmuch as many of the 
books in this library are used throughout the course and are 
to be supplied in duplicate, this does not appear to be an 
excessive demand. With one exception, all other kinds of read- 
ing had probably better be optional. The exception in mind 
here is the reading of .historical fiction and similar material. 
While reading of this type can be optional, there will, however, 
have to be some requirements regarding it if uniform results 
are obtained. These requirements can be made in terms of a 
definite number of books to be read each semester, permitting 
each student to select the ones he reads from a list compiled by 
the teacher. In administering this phase of the work it will 
be well to cooperate with the English department if at all 
possible. There seems to be no valid reason why a student 
should not receive credit in history for reading he does in 
English and vice versa. The arrangements in such a co- 
operative scheme could extend to the checking ; that is, the 
history department accepting the grades of the English depart- 
ment and the English department accepting the grades of the 
history department on all this work. 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 



189 



There seems to be no general agreement among history- 
teachers as to the quantity of collateral reading to require of 
each history class. In fact, the quantity of reading actually 
required varies between wide extremes. Conditions relative 
to this matter in the North Central Association high schools in 
191 5 are shown in Table III. 

TABLE III. APPROXIMATE QUANTITY OF COLLATERAL 
READING IN PAGES PER SEMESTER 1 



Number of Pages 



None 

25 

50 

75 

100 .....' 

120 

150 

180 

200 , 

250 

300 

350 

400 . . 

450 

500 

60c 

700 

750 • • • -■ 

800 

900 

1,000 

1,500 

1,800 

3'5oo 

Not answering 

Answers in terms not usable 



Number of Schools Reporting for 



Ancient 
History 



18 
4 



Total responses to questionnaire 



71 



Medieval and 
Modem History 



52 



English 
History 



17 



American 
History 



18 
9 



104. 



1 Koos, The Administration of Secondary- School Units, p. loi. 



1 90 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Because of the wide variation in the matter of collateral- 
reading requirements which Table III reveals, it certainly 
behooves someone, for the sake of both the pupils and the 
subject, history, to attempt to bring a little order out of the 
existing chaos. The North Central Association itself has 
attempted to control this situation by specifying the minimum 
number of pages to be required in connection with each of the 
four traditional fields of high-school history. These suggestions 
are: ancient history, 200 pages; medieval and modern, 150 
pages; English, 300 pages; and American, 350 pages. The 
median requirements each semester as reported in Dr. Koos's 
study were: ancient, 250 pages; medieval and modern, 250 
pages; English, 275 pages; and American, 350 pages. It 
will be observed on comparing these two sets of figures that 
the teachers represented in Table III required more than twice 
as much collateral reading in each field as the North Central 
Association specifies. 

All of the available data on the quantity of collateral read- 
ing which teachers are actually requiring in connection with 
each course in high-school history indicate very clearly the 
undesirability as well as the impracticability of stating these 
requirements in terms of pages. The practical thing for one 
to do in this matter is to make subject-matter requirements 
rather than page requirements. Granting that the facilities 
are at hand, some collateral reading should be demanded nearly 
every day, the frequency depending upon the fullness of the 
textbook treatment of the general topics with which the course 
deals. Having assignments made in terms of material rather 
than pages the pupils will feel that they are reading history 
for the purpose of securing valuable and usable information 
on a point and not merely killing time on so many pages. 
For all practical purposes the less said about the number of 
pages the better. 

The matter of assigning collateral reading can be made a rela- 
tively simple affair. If the teacher has his work carefully 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 



191 



planned with the collateral reading forming an integral part of 
it, he can readily indicate on making the day -by-day assignments 
just what reading is demanded of all and what is required of 
certain members of the class. In taking up a new topic, for 
example, the French Revolution, a very good scheme is to give 
each pupil at the outset an outline of the work with the 
collateral reading specifically designated. It will then be nec- 
essary, only, from day to day, to call attention briefly to the 
extra reading to be done. In assigning special readings the 
teacher must be sure that they are adapted to the students to 
whom they are assigned. An opportunity offers itself here of 
adjusting the collateral reading to the special capacities of 
the various members of the class. 

The problem of checking collateral reading is one that has 
given many good history teachers considerable difficulty. In 
this matter there is little uniformity, some arguing for one 
method and some for another. The prevalence of the use of a 
number of modes of testing collateral reading is shown in 
Table IV from Dr. Koos's study, which contains the latest 
data on the matter. 



TABLE IV. NUMBER OF TEACHERS REPORTING USE OF 
CERTAIN MODES OF TESTING COLLATERAL READING 1 



Modes of Testing 


Ancient 
History 


M. AND M. 

History 


English 
History 


American 
History 


Total 


Oral reports in class . . . 
Discussions in class . . . 

Quizzes in class 

Written examination or tests 

Written reports 

Themes 


64 
48 
22 

27 

31 
2J. 


44 
34 

22 

17 

16 

30 
19 


IS 

12 

8 

9 
6 

4 
10 

4 


95 
75 
54 
50 
54 
27 
61 

47 


218 
169 
106 
103 

"3 
71 

140 

95 


Notebooks 

Outlines or digests handed in 


39 


Total number of responses 
to questionnaire .... 


71 


52 


17 


104 


244 



^ The AdmhiisU'ation of Secojidary-School Units, p. 10 j 



192 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Table IV certainly contains most of the effective modes of 
testing collateral reading. One not included is the personal 
conference, which is very potent in checking the reading done 
in the field of historical fiction. There are, however, numerous 
ways of using each of the modes listed in this table. For 
example, "written reports" with one teacher means notes taken 
on a week's reading and handed in on Friday. These are in 
the form of direct quotations and abstracts, taken topically 
and accompanied by a list of reading for the week, giving 
author, title of book, particular subject discussed, chapter, 
and pages, and at the bottom of the list the total number of 
pages read. Another teacher has all of the required readings 
outlined on cards for his own use in checking and asks the 
students to hand in outlines of them. This teacher then com- 
pares the work the students hand in with his own, and if it is 
satisfactory stamps it so. There are, in fact, about as many 
specific forms of testing collateral reading by written reports 
as there are teachers using it. Since this is also true of 
many of the other methods listed in Table IV, it does not 
seem worth while to consider each of them in its multifarious 
forms. Attention will therefore be turned to the practical side 
of the matter when viewed from the angle of actual high- 
school conditions. 

There are certain things that can be said in favor of check- 
ing collateral reading by means of oral reports in class. If 
done in a formal way, it is easy on the teacher but hard on the 
class. It can be managed by a teacher who is overworked, as 
most history teachers are, since it requires no time outside 
of the recitation period. When the collateral reading, however, 
is an integral part of the daily lesson, this method cannot 
escape being formal, and if its use is long continued it will 
tend to kill all interest in history. For this reason the method 
should be sparingly used and confined to special reports. 

Testing collateral reading through class discussions and oral 
quizzes undeniably relieves the students of a certain amount of 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 193 

rather painful drudgery and makes the work of the teacher 
less burdensome — two things of vital importance in admin- 
istering any scheme for conducting this phase of history work. 
It is especially claimed for the oral quiz that new life is 
infused into the subject through its use, because the teacher's 
questions can be framed so as to bring out the human element 
in the study. Like claim is also made for the class-discussion 
method, providing the teacher skillfully directs the discussion 
and does not place too much emphasis on facts as facts. The 
ideal to aim at with both of these methods is for the teacher 
through his questions so to vivify the subject that the student 
will go on reading without compulsion. One serious objection 
to these methods is that, since they contemplate setting aside 
certain days for testing, they are likely to cause the pupils 
to feel that the collateral reading and the regular daily work 
are two separate and distinct things. If the collateral reading 
is mainly used, as it should be, to elaborate and make intelli- 
gible the textbook treatment of the subject, no mode of testing 
it which does not require daily application will be free from 
adverse criticisms. 

Testing collateral reading by means of any form of written 
work is likely to become a burden both to pupils and to teacher 
— to the pupils in preparing the exercises and to the teacher 
in grading them. On the part of the pupils this work often 
degenerates into mere copying. The teacher's time for grading 
is limited, hence the danger of inadequateness. When pupils 
feel that their work is not carefully graded, they are likely to 
prepare it carelessly, from the standpoint both of history 
and of English. To avoid all of these pitfalls in the applica- 
tion of the method of testing collateral reading solely by means 
of written reports, the teacher would have to reduce the written 
work to an amount that would practically defeat all the pur- 
poses of collateral reading. 

It would seem from the foregoing adverse criticisms of the 
various modes of checking collateral reading listed in Table IV 



194 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

that there is no way to test the work which is not fraught 
with a multitude of dangers. The situation, however, is not 
so hopeless as it at first seems. A way out of the difficulty is 
a scheme that will combine all the good qualities in each of the 
modes thus far discussed and eliminate as many of the objec- 
tionable ones as is possible. One scheme whereby this can be 
done is the following : Plan the collateral reading so that it 
will be a necessary and integral part of the daily work. In 
doing this it will be found that the majority of the reading 
will be of two types, namely, readings on special topics re- 
quired daily of three or four students and readings assigned 
to the class as a whole. Readings given out one day will be 
tested the next during the recitation period. If a student 
makes an acceptable report on the special topic assigned him, 
there is no need of further testing. Since but one or two of 
these reports can be given each day, it will be necessary to find 
other methods of testing those who make no special reports. 
There are two effective ways to do this. One is to conduct 
the recitation so as to make successful reciting depend upon 
thorough preparation of the extra reading assigned. This 
test would in all probability reach the majority of the class. 
To make sure, however, that no one escapes, it had better be 
supplemented by one that is sure to include all. Of necessity 
any mode of testing that will affect all will be administered 
through written reports to be handed in. These can be in the 
form of outlines, digests, or summaries and should give the 
opportunity for the pupil to apply what he has been taught in 
English and elsewhere concerning these forms of written work. 
One way to report this kind of work is on a card about 4" x 6" 
in size. This plan prevents long reports and at the same time is 
well adapted to the making of outlines, synopses, and digests. 
All of one side of the card and a part of the other should be 
reserved entirely for the student's, notes, the remainder con- 
taining such items as appear on the example given on the 
following page : 



COLLATERAL-READING PROBLEMS 195 



Date 


HISTORY READING CARD 




References Read 


Author 


Title of Bock or Article 


Pages 













196 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Using a card like that on page 195, the student would begin 
his notes on the page just below the subject or topic on which 
he is reading^ and continue them on the other side of the card. 
This would provide all the space that should be used in making 
reports such as the ones contemplated here. These cards vv^ould 
be handed in the next day following the assignment of the 
reading. Students should be permitted to retain their cards 
until the close of the class period in order that they may be 
encouraged to use in reciting the data they have thus collected. 
As long as these cards are satisfactory they should not be 
returned, and they should be destroyed at the end of each 
semester. A few of the best ones might be retained for 
examples to use in connection with teaching beginning classes 
how to use them. One way to make sure that cards will come 
in regularly is to devise a scheme of grading which will make 
passing in the course next to impossible when they are neg- 
lected. Let the students understand the plan at the beginning 
of fhe semester. They will then feel that history-reading cards 
regularly handed in are a part of the work that must be done, 
just the same as taking examinations, making maps, and recit- 
ing when called upon. 

There are legitimate kinds of collateral reading that cannot 
be checked by the foregoing scheme, the chief ones being 
historical fiction and other readings chiefly for pleasure and 
historical setting, and the reading done in connection with 
writing a term paper. This latter kind needs no other test 
than the finished product. All of the former, if time permits, 
should be tested in personal interviews. If this method is not 
practical, a written test of a general character is the next best 
scheme. Questions like the following might be asked in a test 
of this nature : Did you like the book ? Would you advise 
others to read it? Why? Describe a principal character, or 
an event which shows the historical value of the book. It 
should always be. kept in mind that this type of work aims 
primarily to foster the habit of reading with pleasure historical 



COLLATERAL-RpADING PROBLEMS 197 

literature of this character and that the enjoyment should 
not be neutralized by the dread of a test that is somewhere 
in the future. 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

BoTSFORD, G. W. "The Choice and Use of Books relating to the History 

of Greece," History Teacher's Magazine, V (1914), 171 ff. 
Bourne, H. E. "The School and the Library," The Teaching of History 

and Civics in the Elementary and Secondary Schools, chap. viii. 

Longmans, Green & Co., 1903. 
DuRBiN, E. C. "Reference Libraries for Ancient History in the High 

Schools," School Revieiv, XH (1914), 109 ff. 
Evans, Jessie C. "How to make Definite a Reference Course in History 

in High Schools," Seventh Annual Convention of the Association of 

History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland, pp. 12 ff., 

March, 1909. 
FuLWiDER, L. A. "High School Texts and Equipment in History," 

Mississippi Valley Historical Association Proceedings, IV (1910-1911), 

245 ff. 
Garrett, M. B. "Testing Collateral Reading," History Teacher's Maga- 
zine, Vn (1916), S3 ff. 
GuTCH, Milton R. " Efficiency in Supplementary Reading," The Texas 

History Teacher's Bidletin, II (1913), 3 ff. 
Hoover, T. N. "History Material and its Keeping," History Teacher's 

Magazine, III (1911), 4f. 
Johnson, Henry. "The Selection and Management of Collateral Read- 
. ing," The Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools, 

chap. xiii. The Macmillan Company, 1915. 
Johnson, W. D. "The Library and History Study," History Teacher's 

Magazine, VI (1915), 31 ff. 
Nestor, Ira F. " Library Work and Collateral Reading," History Teach- 
er's Magazine, III (1914), 53 ff. 
Perkins, Clarence. "Reference Work in High-School History Courses," 

History Teacher's Magazine, II (1911), 123 ff. 
Pitts, Lemuel. " Are History Libraries used to Best Advantage ? " 

History Teacher's Magazine, VII (1916), 55 f. 
Robinson, E. V. "Topics for Supplementary Reading and Discussion 

in United States History," School Review, V (1897), 302 ff. 
Shortridge, W. p. "Testing Collateral Reading," History Teacher's 

Magazine, III (1912), 19. 



198 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Show, A. B. "History Reference Library for High Schools," History 

Teacher's Magazine, HI (1912), 79 ff. 
Smith, Mary S. "How to utilize the Library in High-School History," 

History Teacher's Magazine, V (1914), 139 f. 
Smith, P. T. " Collateral Reading in Recent American History," History 

Teacher's Magazine, IX (1918), 202 ff. 
WuESTHOFF, W. W. "What should we attempt in Collateral Reading 

and how shall we test it ?" History Teacher's Magazine, VHI (1917), 

129 ff. 



^ CHAPTER X 

TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS IN CONNECTION 
WITH HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 

Since the fall of 19 14 there has been increasing stress on the 
teaching of current events in connection with history and 
English, especially history. The World War, of course, was the 
big impelling force behind this augmented attention to present- 
day happenings. Even before the outbreak of the war, however, 
many educators and a few history teachers had come to feel 
that too much emphasis in high-school history teaching was 
placed in the remote past at the expense of the present. With 
such a feeling quite prevalent and the impelling force at hand, 
there is no occasion for surprise at the heightened emphasis 
given to current topics in connection with high-school history 
during the past few years. 

Need and Value of Current-Event Study 

The statement is often made concerning much of the ma- 
terial taught in present-day history courses that it is totally 
lacking in personal appeal. Too many pupils have the same 
feeling about the events and personages in far-away times, as 
had Mike in a little story told on one occasion by Professor 
Muzzey. As the story goes, the Professor's colleague was try- 
ing to impress upon a class of settlement boys the awful 
character of Nero. He told them how Nero had poisoned his 
courtiers, kicked his wife, killed his mother, and how he had 
longed to sever the heads of all his subjects with a single stroke 
of the axe. Then turning to Mike, to get his reaction, he 

199 



200 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

asked, "Well, Mike, what do you think of this man Nero?" 
Mike roused himself sufficiently to drawl out, "Huh, he never 
done nothing to me ! " The absolute lack of a personal appeal 
in the case of Mike in this story finds its counterpart in much 
history work today. It is to give to history this much-to-be- 
desired personal appeal that current-event work has been 
brought into the history classes. 

Another need which the teaching of current events can be 
made to meet is the one of making history teaching concrete 
and objective. One of the fundamental criteria for judging 
good history teaching is the opportunity given the pupils dur- 
ing the progress of their work to do concrete and objective 
thinking. By noting comparisons and contrasts in past and 
present-day life, by seeing the beginnings in the past of our 
present-day institutions and customs, and by the constant 
illumination of the past by means of the present, and vice 
versa, the students are afforded much opportunity for concrete 
and objective thinking — som_ething greatly needed because of 
the abstract nature of so much of the material with which the 
students work. 

If one views current-event work in history courses from the 
angle of its value, there are at hand considerations by both 
teachers and pupils. The chief values attributed to this work 
by enthusiastic teachers are that it gives the pupils an insight 
into history in the making, correlates present-day problems 
with the past, helps the pupils to discover present-day interests 
and tendencies ; that such work is near to the pupils, practical, 
and in constant demand ; that a knowledge of his relation to 
current happenings is of first importance to a good citizen ; 
that current-event work gives excellent training in acquiring 
knowledge ; that interest in any work is of prime importance, 
and current-event study tends to create and sustain an interest 
in the history work ; that it gives opportunity to evaluate a 
magazine or newspaper article and decide upon its true worth, 
thus preventing an acceptance of everything read ; that it 



TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS 201 

develops in the pupils the power of expression and the ability 
to make themselves clear and interesting to companions ; that 
after thorough training in current-event work the pupils will 
as citizens take increased and active interest in civic and 
political affairs ; that, by showing the pupils that most ques- 
tions have two sides and therefore need much study, it fosters 
the habit of considering questions from the standpoint of reason 
and judgment ; and that it acquaints young people with the 
right sort of current literature to read. 

This array of values of current-event work gives but half 
of the story. What do students themselves think of its value ? 
Fortunately a number of answers to this question are at hand. 
After pursuing current-event work for a time, some high-school 
students when asked concerning its value replied : 

1. It not only gives you an idea of what is going on around 
you but it also gives you a feeling that it is your duty to find 
out what is going on in your city, state, and nation, and among 
the nations. 

2. It gets one into the habit of reading about important topics, 
a habit that is pretty hard to get rid of, and one that we don't 
want to get rid of. 

3. It enables one to find out what is going on in foreign countries, 
and shows the attitude of our country toward other countries. 

4. It makes better citizens because pupils begin to look into mat- 
ters and they will be apt to continue doing so, which will mean that 
they will not vote a certain partj^ ticket because their fathers did. 

5. It prepares one for a respectable standing among intelligent 
men, and enables one to talk about poHtics and understand when 
others are talking about the government and daily occurrences. 

6. Perhaps the greatest and most forcible reason for studying 
current events is that to be an intelligent voter one must have a 
clear idea of the great issues of the day, which can be gained 
(practically speaking) in no other way than by a study of current 
events and movements.^ 

1 Gathany, "How I teach Current Events," History Teachet's Magazine, 
VII, 25. 



202 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

The Problems of Place, Time, and Topics 

Having convinced himself that there is immense value in a 
systematic study of current events in connection with the work 
in history, the teacher is ready to consider some other matters. 
Let us suppose that it is the question of the particular class in 
which to teach the work and the time to devote to it. At the 
present time it is quite common to do some current-event work 
in all high-school history classes. Other practices are to carry 
on the work in conjunction with American history only, or 
civics only, or American history and civics only, devoting one 
period a week to it. On the matter both of the class in which 
to do the work and of the time to devote to it the following 
general rules seem reasonable. 

1. Do some current-event work in connection with all high- 
school classes in history and in civics. 

2. Give the work a definite place and time on the program, 
preferably one period a week. 

3. Vary the work to fit the needs and capacities of each 
class ; use one method of conducting it with one class and a 
different method with another. Let the work exemplify the 
principle of progress within the subject. 

4. Besides the regular day devoted to the work give it some 
attention by way of application during the regular history 
work when opportunity affords. 

The problem of determining the present-day topics with 
which junior and senior high-school pupils should be familiar 
is by no means an easy one to solve satisfactorily. One way 
to settle the matter is simply to let the magazines and news- 
papers determine week by week or month by month what topics 
to consider. Another and more systematic mode of procedure 
is to examine the local, state, and cosmopolitan papers cover- 
ing a definite period and discover if possible the topics most 
consistently before the public, hence the ones about which 
citizens should be best informed. To illustrate what is meant 



TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS 203 

by a study of this type, Table V (p. 204) is given. The time 
covered in the table is one year and eight months, beginning in 
July, 1 9 13, and ending in March, 19 15. The table shows results 
obtained from an examination of 138 daily papers, ranging in 
size from small dailies to such papers as the New York Times. 
A good plan would be to make a study similar to Mr. 
Garth's with one class each year, preferably the most advanced 
one. The results of these studies, if kept from year to year, 
could be used as a guide in selecting the topics to be considered 
in the lower classes. The actual training gained from this 
work would well pay the class for making it. If one adds the 
social value resulting therefrom to the personal gain, the sum 
total of the results would justify the study. 

Possible Methods of Procedure 

Since some current-event work is to be done in each history 
class, the method of procedure becomes a very important 
consideration. If there is any advance in the quality of the 
work from year to year, it will have to be secured largely 
through the way of presenting it. It may be possible to find 
a method, for instance, that is especially adapted to each of the 
junior high-school grades and to each of the senior high-school 
grades as well. A survey of the various methods used by teach- 
ers may throw some light on this rather intricate problem. 

The committee method. A tentative outline which will 
cover the main issues before the public as discovered through 
an examination of periodicals and daily newspapers is first 
mapped out, the class having a part in this work. On the 
basis of the general outline thus made, a committee is ap- 
pointed to be responsible for each main topic. For example, 
the topics might be " Men and Women before the Public," 
''Capital and Labor," "Science and Invention," "Literature 
and Art," "International Events of Importance," "Religion 
and Education," "Events of a State and Local Character." 



204 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



TABLE V. RELATIVE STRENGTH OF INTERESTS OPERATING 

IN SOCIETY AS DETERMINED FROM WHAT APPEARS IN THE 

DAILY NEWSPAPERS! 



Average Percentage 
OF Space 

DEVOTED TO ToPIC 



War 

Sports , 

Government 

Business 

Finance ......... 

Crime 

Politics , 

Education 

Deaths and Births 

Society , 

Safety and Accidents . . , 

Noted Persons 

Industries 

Religion 

Literature 

Persons not Noted . . . , 

Agriculture 

Theater 

Marriage 

Benevolence 

Improvements 

Weather 

Jokes 

Household Arts 

Science and Discovery . . 

Fashion 

Amusements and Recreation 

Exposition 

Divorce 

Invention 

Transportation 

Art 



14 



1 Compiled from data collected by T. R. Garth and published in School 
and Society, III, 140 f. 



TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS 205 

This list would demand seven committees. Some of these 
committees would report once a week and others once a month. 
The exact arrangement would be determined by the quantity 
of material available on the various topics as the work moves 
along. The recitation in carrying out this method of procedure 
would consist of committee reports, usually by the chairman, 
the report being based on work done by the entire committee. 
If- five committees were to report on a certain day, a definite 
time apportionment should be used so that one or two of them 
would not consume all the time. In order that each member 
of the class may be familiarized with the character of the 
material that he must read in following each general topic for 
a month or so, the personnel of the committees should be 
changed from time to time.^ 

The report method. Each pupil is required to choose a sub- 
ject which he will follow for a week or so and on which he 
will report the results of his study to the class. Concrete in- 
formation given in definite statements, based on an outline 
previously approved by the teacher, is demanded. This out- 
line should be in such a form as to make it possible for the 
class to copy and to use it as a basis for note-taking on the 
report. The entire class is held responsible for the contents of 
each report. Two or more pupils may select the same topic, 
thus making possible some lively discussion of the report when 
given. 

The historical method. The teacher selects some important 
local, national, or international topic to be followed closely for 
several weeks. In this case the outlining of the work is done 
by the instructor. Assignments are made in about the same 
way as in the regular history work. In pursuit of this plan 
the material used will necessarily be a week or more old, 
because the teacher must know the subject matter before he 
can outline it. This method seems particularly well fitted 

1 Kirk, "A Class in Current Events," History Teachei^s Magazine, 
VII, 97 f. 



2o6 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

to topics which require some historical background in order 
to be thoroughly understood and fully appreciated by the pupil. 

\The notebook method. Each member of the class is re- 
uired to bring in once a week a digest of some eight or ten 
events of his own choosing. These digests are placed in a 
permanent current-event notebook along with suitable clip- 
pings and apt illustrations when they can be secured. The 
notebook work is arranged according to some definite plan 
such as the following : 

I. Local events (in the town, city, or state) 

A. Name of the event 

1. Reference 

2. Digest of the event 

B. Arrangement as under A 

C. Arrangement as under A 
II. National events 

A. Name of the event 

1. Reference 

2. Digest of the event 

B. Arrangement as under A 

C. Arrangement as under A 
III. International and foreign events 

A. Name of the event 

1. Reference 

2. Digest of the event 

B. Arrangement as under A 

C. Arrangement as under A^ 

The injormal method. All restraints and definite require- 
ments are removed from the work, each pupil simply being 
held responsible for a concise report on some event on the 
day set aside for the work. The recitation is carried on in the 
form of a roll-call, each member of the class responding with 
a brief report on some one of the week's happenings. This 

1 Gathany, " Using Magazines in History Classes," Outlook (August 24, 
1914), pp. I053f. 



TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS 207 

method, it will be observed, places the chief emphasis on habit 
formation rather than on information. Its chief merits are 
an absence of formality and its similarity to what people do in 
actual life (that is, they read what they please and talk about 
what they read if it interests them). 

The textbook method. Whenever a periodical is used as a 
text, certain portions are set aside each week for discussion. 
All pupils are held responsible for the material, just as they 
are in their history texts. The recitations are conducted in 
about the same manner as in the regular history work. Maga- 
zines which have definite sections lend themselves to this 
method. For example, one week a ^^ Review of the World" 
would be considered ; following this, '' Persons in the Fore- 
ground" ; the next, "Science and Invention" ; and the fourth, 
"Religion, Literature, Education, and Art." The advantages 
here are that the teacher can assign definite tasks and demand 
their performance, also a unity is found in the work which 
is too often absent under some other plans. 

Reports-on-assigned-topics method. When some current- 
event work is to be done every day, four or five pupils are ex- 
cused from preparing the history lesson for the day and asked 
to report on some assigned current topic or topics. When 
the class assembles, the regular history lesson is first disposed 
of, say in twenty or twenty-five minutes, the remainder of the 
time being devoted to reports on the assigned current topics. 
The entire class keeps the results of these reports in permanent 
notebooks. The general outline of each topic is given in 
advance by the teacher, thus leaving only the details to be 
inserted when the reports are actually made.^ 

No doubt the wide-awake and interested teacher will dis- 
cover other and probably better ways of conducting current- 
event work than those described above. There are, of course, 
favorable and unfavorable things to be said concerning almost 
any procedure, as there seems to be no best one. The main 

1 Gathany, " Using Magazines in History Classes," op. cit. p. 1054. 



2o8 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

points to be made in this connection, however, are (i) that 
the teacher should have a well-formulated plan for the work, 
one that is thoroughly understood both by himself and by the 
pupils; and (2) that there must be some gradation in the 
methods used in lower and upper classes, which is another way 
of saying that the method must be adapted to the class using it, 
and that the one employed in the most advanced class should 
use all of the knowledge and training acquired through the 
methods previously employed. 

The Magazine to Use 

In all probability there is no one best magazine to use in 
connection with the study of current events. The following 
criteria for judging the fitness of a periodical for this work 
have been proposed : ( i ) the use of precise and exact English ; 
(2) deafness and definiteness in presentation ; (3) unquestioned 
scholarship ; (4) painstaking care in giving to its readers 
only trustworthy and authoritative information; (5) lack 
of partisanship; (6) an aggressive policy for public good; 
and (7) the periodical's power and purpose to arouse public 
conscience/ Most people will concede that these are worthy 
and well-stated standards, but when it comes to applying them 
to magazines in general one encounters some seemingly in- 
superable obstacles. It would be difficult to find a respectable 
magazine that does not claim to embody each of Mr. Gathany's 
essential characteristics in the superlative degree. In spite of 
this fact, however, and the special attempt of some magazines 
to cater to these demands as well, to date there is no periodical 
in the field, printed wholty for use in current-topic work, that 
is entirely satisfactory. The magazines claiming this distinc- 
tion have simply added a section which offers suggestions for 
using the material that they have always been printing. The 
thought here is that the major articles in these magazines are 

1 Gathany, " Using Magazines in History Classes," op. cit. p. 1053 



TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS 209 

not prepared as textbooks are, with the idea that they are to be 
used exclusively by high-school pupils of a certain maturity. 
If magazines ever attain the success that they should in 
presenting material adapted to high-school students, they will 
have to displace their general audience with a limited one. 
Until they do this the teacher will have to do what has been 
done in the past in respect to the magazine to use in current- 
event work, namely, use the one most available, as there is 
little or no difference in the quality and quantity of material 
or the level on which it is written when one considers the 
magazines that are making any special efforts to appeal 
to those interested in current-event study. However, before 
one can decide upon the magazine to use, there is another 
question which must be settled, namely, whether the periodical 
is to be a weekly or a monthly. Let us examine the claims of 
each of these. 

In favor of the weekly periodical it can be said that if regu- 
larly done once a week, current-event work adapts itself 
admirably to such a plan. The articles are likely to be up 
to the minute and rather brief. The most significant happen- 
ings in so far as they can be determined at so short a range 
are also found in most weekly periodicals. The chief objec- 
tions to the permanent use of weeklies are that they generally 
depend upon newspapers for their news, hence are subject to 
the same pitfalls, only to a less degree, as newspapers; the 
articles appearing in them are not usually of permanent value ; 
topics treated are usually incomplete and not fully developed ; 
the general make-up of the periodicals as a whole is not 
especially appealing to high-school pupils ; and they contain 
few or no illustrations, many quotations, and a general lack of 
continuity in treatment, since most of the material is in the 
form of a survey. 

In favor of the monthly periodical the following statements 
may be made : It contains a large variety of articles by differ- 
ent authors; the style of the articles usually appeals to the 



210 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

high-school students because it is more like what they are 
accustomed to ; it is usually profusely illustrated and therefore 
likely to attract and hold young readers ; the articles are often 
of permanent value, because they are written by individuals 
possessing first-hand knowledge ; the nature of the material 
offers many opportunities for the teacher to make historic and 
economic parallels; and, because topics have a full month to 
develop, the treatment can approximate completeness and 
maturity. As for the objections to monthly magazines, it may 
be said that when one period a week is devoted to the work, 
the student is likely to lose interest in the succeeding three 
weeks. There is a tendency to want to be more nearly up to 
the minute in everyday occurrences. To wait a whole month 
for important and exciting news is too much to expect. It 
is also true that many of the articles in a monthly magazine 
are written far in advance of their publication. Such articles, 
of course, are those having more or less permanent value, and 
they are more useful as supplementary reading matter in con- 
nection with courses in geography, history, or English. 

There is no disposition in this discussion arbitrarily to settle 
the debatable questions relative to the best magazine for use in 
a course in current topics. The fact is that many teachers may 
never face such a problem, in as much as they will have to 
depend for material upon the magazines to which the pupils 
may chance to have access. This being the case, the problem 
assumes a different nature, namely, that of making the best 
possible use of the varied materials at the teacher's command. 

In connection with this matter of what magazine to use there 
are two other considerations which deserve some thought on the 
part of the teacher. These are the preservation of certain 
types of material for future use and the study of magazines 
in general. As the current-topic work progresses from day to 
day there will appear many articles of historic value, which 
should be found and filed away for future reference. It would 
be well to let one class each semester specialize in the collection 



TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS 211 

and proper filing of this type of material. In this class it 
would be better not to rely wholly upon material from any one 
source of the weekly lessons. After a magazine has been used, 
ask the owner to donate it to the course. Occasionally through- 
out the semester certain days should be used for cutting out the 
articles worth preserving and binding them in a neat form for 
filing. The teacher, with the assistance of the class, should work 
out a definite system for filing and cataloguing this material. 
If this is done with intelligent care, it will be of inestimable 
value for future reference in all history and civics courses. 

Before leaving high school each student should have the 
opportunity of a special study of magazines and newspapers. 
This work could be done in the same semester in which the 
preserving and filing of material are emphasized. These two 
things would go well together, since each demands access to a 
number of magazines for its successful operation. The chief 
things to emphasize in the study of magazines are the numer- 
ous types with some concrete examples of each, the nature and 
content of each type, and the chief characteristics of dailies, 
weeklies, and monthlies. The purpose of this work is thor- 
oughly to acquaint the class with the various types of maga- 
zines so that the knowledge thus acquired will guide future 
magazine reading. It will also serve as a protection to some in 
the class who will have an opportunity to find out by a com- 
parative study the best periodicals in any one field. 

Some Difficulties and Precautions 

Before undertaking work with a class in current topics the 
teacher should know that there are certain difficulties which he 
is sure to encounter and that by knowing and heeding a few 
cautions and suggestions he may reduce them to a minimum. 
Chief among these difficulties are : ( i ) The work is likely 
to be disconnected, to lack unity, and to have few tangible 
results. (2) The importance of contemporary events is easily 



212 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

overemphasized, because we are too near them to get a proper 
perspective ; the student is likely to get the idea from 
newspaper and periodical accounts that most present-day hap- 
penings are as important as the French or the American Revolu- 
tion. (3) Securing, using, and properly interpreting the sources 
of information are obstacles too great for an ordinary class to 
overcome. Because of these difficulties, few final conclusions 
can be made, which is somewhat unfortunate for young people 
who crave finality. (4) The results of the work do not lend 
themselves to the customary test used in history and civics. 
The complaint is often heard that pupils seem interested, but 
when any semblance of a test is administered they show dense 
ignorance of what they are supposed to know. 

The following precautions and suggestions may help to 
solve and avoid some of the foregoing difficulties : ( i ) To 
keep the work from being scrappy and disconnected, center 
the attention of the class as far as possible on large problems 
as central themes, and correlate the minor events around them. 
Let the class always be informed as to the exact problem or 
problems under consideration ; keep the information on each 
large problem separate ; on finishing a topic summarize the 
knowledge gained in studying it. (2) Continually emphasize 
the difficulties connected with getting the proper perspective 
of history in the making. This may help to counteract the 
tendency to overemphasize certain present-day happenings. 
(3) Make the work so definite that it can be tested by means 
of the customary school tests. Definite assignments and regu- 
lar tests will aid in this matter. If it is felt desirable, short 
weekly tests could be given, these in turn to be followed by 
a regular examination once in every five or six weeks. Of 
course it should be kept in mind that one big result which 
must come from this work can probably never be satisfactorily 
tested, namely, the habit of reading periodical literature and 
passing judgment on the contents thereof. (4) Change the 
method of conducting the work as soon as it is discovered that 



TEACHING CURRENT EVENTS 213 

the class is losing interest in the one in use. However, a 
method once undertaken with a class should be continued until 
it has been mastered. If interest seems to lag, it may be 
because the details of the method are not clear. (5) Make 
the work concrete by means of such devices as individual col- 
lections of clippings, pictures, and cartoons, and a bulletin- 
board for which the entire class is responsible. In order to 
keep up interest in the bulletin-board some attention should be 
given to it every day. The details of management might be 
placed in charge of a committee appointed by the class, said 
committee being held responsible for keeping the board filled 
with material directly related to the work the class is doing. 
Individuals may loan clippings, cartoons, and pictures to the 
committee for display purposes, these to be returned and prop- 
erly filed when they have served their purpose on the 
bulletin-board. 



ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Andrews, Arthur. "Some Suggestions as to the Use and Abuse of 
Current Events in History Classes," History Teacher's Magazine, 
IX (1918), 144 ff. 

BoYNTON, G. E. "The Use of Current Literature," History Teacher's 
Magazine, VII (1916), 95 ff. 

Duncan, D. Shaw. "Use of Magazines in History Teaching," History 
Teacher's Magazine, VIII (1917), 160 f. 

Gathany, J. M. "Tying History to Life," Outlook, CXX (1918), 58 ff.; 
"Using Magazines in History Classes," History Teacher's Magazine, 
V (1914), 288 ff.; and "How I handle Current Events," ibid. VII 
(1916), 24 ff. 

Gore, Alvin G. "Current Events in the High School," Teaching, III 
(1917), 22 ff. 

Hendricks, E. L. "A Course in Current History," Mississippi Valley 
Historical Association Proceedings, VI (1912-1913), 332 ff. 

Kirk, Annie B. "A Class in Current Events," History Teacher's Maga- 
zine, VII (1916), 97 f. 

Nelson, J. C. "Teaching Of Contemporary History in the High School," 
History Teacher's Magazine, VI (1915), 82 ff. 



'1 w- 



CHAPTER XI 

PLANNING THE COURSE AND THE LESSON 

Successful teachers will testify to the fact that nothing 
brings such large returns both to themselves and to the pupils 
as a careful and. detailed planning of an entire course long 
before it begins. The chief rewards to the teacher resulting 
from painstaking care in planning are the pleasure in seeing 
the work move along with smoothness and definiteness, free- 
dom from the daily worrj^ about things to do Jiext, time for 
wide reading and search for material to make the work more 
concrete, time to grade written work, and the pleasure that 
comes from a piece of work well done. On the part of the 
pupiTs the most outstanding returns are the fact that they 
always know just what they are doing, the ease with which they 
group the main facts jif^the^ course, the enthusiasm and pleasure 
gained from a course in which they feel that they are succeed- 
ing, and the freedom from the floundering which too often 
accompanies courses where no one seems to know just what 
turn things are to take next. To obtain these ends for himself 
and his pupils the teacher must know what it really means to 
have the entire course as well as each lesson planned in detail. 
It is to a somewhat minute consideration of these matters that 
this chapter is devoted. 

Generally speaking, efficient course planning in history in- 
volves some ten specific things : ( i ) objectives or attainments ; 
(2) the general organization for teaching purposes of the 
field of history in question; (3) an overview of each main 
division of the field; (4) the six or eight maps to make, in- 
cluding the main features to be shown on each ; (5) a list of 

214 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 215 

the significant personages to know and identify; (6) a list of 
the dates-events to remember; (7) the general and specific 
methods of procedure; (8) the analysis of some half-dozen 
textbooks in the field; (9) library and laboratory equipment; 
and (10) a detailed outline of each topic taught in the course 
according to some definite and workable scheme. 

Objectives or Attainments 

Under objectives and attainments will come two things : 
a statement of the particularized objectives or attainments of 
history in general and the same sort of a statement relative 
to the particular field of history being organized. Neither of 
these statements need to be known to the student except as the 
course reveals them to him as it proceeds from day to day. 
The writer has no dogmatic statement as to just what these 
objectives should be. A famous committee some twenty years 
ago said that the chief objectives in studying and teaching 
high-school history should be (i) to bring boys and girls to 
some knowledge of their environment ; ( 2 ) to fit boys and 
girls to become intelligent citizens; (3) to cultivate the judg- 
ment ; (4) to give power in arranging and systematizing facts ; 
(5) to develop the scientific habit of mind and thought ; (6) to 
furnish the opportunity for the student to acquire a store of 
valuable historical material ; ( 7 ) to broaden the sympathies 
and lay the foundation for permanent and worthy refinement ; 
(8) to give training in handling books; (9) to quicken, 
strengthen, and discipline the imagination; and (10) to afford 
training in good diction.^ What high-school teachers them- 
selves claim as the aims or objectives in the four traditional 
fields of history is found in Table VI (p. 216). 

Additional tabulations of objectives could be given, but since 
they would be more or less a repetition of the preceding two, 
their inclusion here would contribute nothing to the discussion. 

1 Committee of Seven, The Study of History in Schools {1898), pp. 16 ff. 



2l6 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



TABLE VI. PERCENTAGE OF CONCURRENCE OF TEACHERS 

OF HISTORY IN AIMS LISTED IN THE INQUIRY CONDUCTED 

BY DR. LEONARD KOOS^ 



Aims 


Ancient 
History 


Medieval 

AND Modern 

History 


English 
History 


American 
History 


1. To master the text .... 

2. To cultivate the power of 
handling facts 

3. To develop the spirit of 
nationalism 

4. To cultivate " reconstructive 
imagination " 

5. To equip the student with a 
store of historical informa- 
tion 


59-2 
85-9 
42.3 
59-2 

62.0 

67.6 
73-2 

76.1 

634 
74.6 


44.2 
78.9 
40.4 

SS-8 

654 

75.0 
69.2 

654 

75-0 
82.7 


52-9 
82.4 
47.1 
S2.4 

64.7 

94.1 

70.6 

58.8 

70.6 
82.4 


46.2 
81.7 
70.2 

59-6 

57-7 

82.7 
93-3 

76.0 

63-5 
74.0 


6. To develop the " faculty of 
discrimination " 

7. To promote good citizenship 

8. To develop ability in speech, 
oral and written 

9. To inspire with a love of 
reading 


10. To teach the use of books . 





Furthermore, little other than mere opinion is represented in 
either of the two preceding lists, as would be the case in 
additional ones that might be given. While the history teacher 
is waiting for the objectives in his subject to be scientifically 
determined, he will have to select from the unscientifically 
determined ones those he thinks of most value and see that he 
accomplishes them through his teaching. If he thinks it a 
desirable thing to do, however, he can set up specific objectives 
for each course, these being stated in terms of the general 
organization. That is, he can say just what each student on 
completing any particular course must know and be able to do. 
For example, a list of these particularized requirements would 

1 Administration of Sccondaiy-School Units, p. 105. 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 217 

include certain maps to make, personages to know, dates- 
events to remember, an overview to know, and a number of 
books relating to the subject with which to be familiar. These 
specific objectives would add definiteness to the work and in a 
measure offset the indefinite ends which are usually given for 
the subject of history. 

General Organization for Teaching Purposes 

The general organization for teaching purposes of any field 
of history includes three things: the name and date boundary 
of the six or eight main divisions, the percentage of time to be 
given to each division, and the six or eight leading topics under 
each big division. To explain what is meant by each of these 
the field of American history will be used as an example. 

First, as to the general organization of the field and the 
percentage of time to be devoted to each main division: There 
are certain prerequisites or principles which should guide 
one in organizing the field of American history, or any field 
for that matter, for teaching purposes. Chief among these 
are the number, length, date boundaries, and names of the 
main divisions. The name must suggest the dominant move- 
ments or characteristics of the period and must likewise be 
short enough to be held in mind without difficulty. The date 
boundary must mark, roughly at least, the beginning and the 
end of the movement. Each division must be long enough to 
illustrate progress and development, but not so long as to make 
it difficult for the pupil to keep its chief characteristics well in 
mind. All of these will in a measure determine the number of 
divisions, which should be neither too few nor too many. If 
there are too few divisions, the pupil will be troubled with the 
complexities they contain; if too many, he will have difficulty 
in keeping them in mind at all stages of his "progress through 
the course. To illustrate these prerequisites the following 
organization of American history for teaching purposes in the 
junior high school is submitted : 



2l8 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN HISTORY FOR 
TEACHING PURPOSES IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 



Name and Date Boundary of Each Large Division 



Percentage 

OF Total 
Time Given 



I. Perspective and introductory view — factors affect- 
ing early American history 

II. The period of discovery and exploration, 1492— 1607 

III. Colonization and the struggle for supremacy in 
North America, 1607-1763 

IV. Revolution and the establishment of the American 
nation, 1763-17S9 

"^ V. Nationalism and democracy, 17S9-1S29 

v/VI. Expansion and conflict, 1 829-1865 

VII. Reconstruction and consolidation, 1S65-1897 . . . 

VIII. National expansion and the new democracy, 1897 to 

present time 



10 
8 



16 
17 

_5. 
100 



To explain what is meant by the six or eight leading topics 
under each main division, let us take the j&rst two of the 
divisions given above. When worked out for teaching pur- 
poses the general outline of these two divisions would be : 

I. Perspective and introductory view-factors affecting early 
American history. 

A. Overview story of the entire course. 

B. Physical features of eastern North America. 

C. The North American Indians. 

D. European background of American history. 

II. The period of discovery and exploration, 1492-1607. 

A. Spain and her activities. 

B. Portuguese attempts and accomplishments. 

C. English explorations. 

D. French explorations and discoveries. 

E. Rival claims to North America in about 1650. 

^Vhen the teacher has completed the remaining division of 
the field in a similar manner, or else thrown two periods 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 219 

together and selected topics running through both of them, or 
some other practical and definite way, and decided upon the 
approximate amount of time each leading topic is to receive of 
the time devoted to the main division^ he has completed the 
first step in organizing the course in American history for 
teaching purposes. On the basis of all these accomplishments 
he is now ready to undertake another phase of the work. 

Maps to Make 

On completing the work relative to the general organization 
of the field the teacher may next take up the matter 0/ maps 
to make, or, if he prefers, the list of personages to know, or 
the dates-events to remember. Let us suppose he begins on the 
maps. On thinking through each main division of the field he 
will decide upon the minimum amount of map work necessary 
to make the historical geography clear. The number of in- 
dividual maps need not be large. On an average one for 
each main division is a very safe rule. After deciding the 
number of maps necessary, the name for each is the next 
problem to be solved. j^uch thought can profitably be spent^-^4^ 
on the names for the various maps, since each is to be so 
learned that it can be reproduced at any subsequent time. The 
following list of maps for American history in upper elementary 
grades and junior high school illustrate what is meant here. 

NAMES OF MAPS TO MAKE IN AMERICAN HISTORY 

I. North America North of Mexico — Physical Features and 

Indians. 
II. Discovery and Exploration. 

III. Conflicting Claims of Territory in 1650. 

IV. Progress of Settlement to 1750. 

V. North America North of Mexico in 1763. 
VI. The United States in 1790. 

VII. Progressive Territorial Map of the United States to 1853. 
VIII. Admission of States and the Status of Slavery to i860. 
IX. The United States and her Possessions Today. 



2 20 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

The value and importance of map work in history is suf- 
ficient to justify the teacher's spending considerable time on it. 
On the value and use of the outline map in history teaching 
there is probably no clearer statement than that of Harding 
when he says : 

The filling in from time to time of outline maps to show the 
geography of a period or a movement is almost indispensable to 
sound historical knowledge. Noa here else, perhaps, wil] thp. p rrn- 
jci ple of "le arning by doing" be^ ffflind so SQiLDJ_Df''^agogi.cal]y 
Accuracy of locations should be insisted upon, for the deviation of 
a quarter of an inch on the pupil's map will often mean a difference 
of a hundred miles or more on the earth's surface. Water colors, 
wax crayons, or pastels can be used for coloring ; but some 
instruction should be given in their technique. 

Finally, as a means of testing the pupil's knowledge, they should 
at examination time or on other occasions be required to show from 
memory, on blank outline maps furnished them, some of the chief 
historical locations which they have been studying. Probably 
there is no other device which will more certainly make for 
thorough map study, both in their textbooks and in this series. It 
is only fair, however, that this requirement should be announced 
beforehand, and fairness also demands that too much should not 
be made of it. What the wise teacher will demand is understand- 
mg — first, last, and all the time; but if the study of history is to 
be of permanent value, as much accuracy and definiteness of detail 
as is possible should be combined with this.^ 

The second part of Harding's excellent statement indicates 
the objective to be reached in the map work under discussion 
here. On completing a course each student should be able 
to fill in from memory each outline map he has been required 
to make during the course. The number of maps in each case 
should be kept low enough to make this demand reasonable. 
Of course, temporary maps may be made from time to time to 
illustrate and make concrete specific historical movements, 

1 A Teacher's Manual accompanying the Harding Earopeati History 
Maps, pp. 12 f. 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 221 

These, however, should not be confused with the permanent 
maps which the student must know. Generally speaking, the 
temporary maps will be made as the work moves along from 
day to day, and the few permanent ones after the study of a 
specific period has been completed. 

Since the few permanent maps are to be filled in with much 
care and as accurately as possible, specific instructions for the 
work had better be given the pupils. Directions similar to the 
following might be used.^ 

1. Print neatly with pen and ink all names, dates, descriptions, 
and explanations. No script must appear on the finished map. 

2. Locate and name the physical features called for in connection 
with each map. These include rivers, mountain ranges, bodies of 
water, highlands, mountain passes, and the like. 

3. Trace with pen as needed boundaries of countries, territorial 
results of treaties, routes of lines of march, invasions, explorations, 
movements of population, and similar historical data. 

4. Locate and name as needed pohtical areas, cities, towns, and 
other political features. 

5. Descriptions and explanations must bg done briefly and with 
care. Place them in the lower left-hand corner. 

6. Use color sparingly. With a little practice and ingenuity 
you can do the whole map in ink. 

7. Place your own name in the lower right-hand corner. 

By following these or similar directions to the letter a 
class will soon be producing maps of a uniformly high grade. 
That there may be no waste of effort, as much of the work 
as possible should be done under the guidance of the teacher. 
This is especially true of beginning classes. Since no course 
will be overburdened with historical map-making, the teacher 
can well afford to take the recitation time for some of this work 
if no special laboratory periods are provided. 

1 For valuable suggestions along this line see Bishop and Robinson, 
Pi-actical Map Exercises in Medieval and Modern Eicropean History, Ginn 
and Company, 1920. 



22 2 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Dates-Events to Know and Remember 

History teaching has often been criticized adversely because 
it consisted of little else than learning and reciting a long 
list of unrelated facts. For this reason many teachers are 
somewhat timid when it comes to asking their pupils actually 
to learn a list of dates-events, however short. There are, 
on the other hand, many teachers who feel that since time is 
one of the chief elements of history it becomes very necessary 
to learn a few dates along with the events they mark and the 
full significance of each in order to have the necessary historical 
guideposts to direct the pupil along his journey and through any 
particular course. It is with this latter feeling that the teacher 
should enter upon the work of preparing a minimum list of 
dates-events to be learned and remembered in connection with 
each field of history. 

There are a number of ways to determine the list of dates- 
events for any particular field of history. First, the teacher 
might make a list which he feels necessary to teach in con- 
nection with the general organization he has decided upon. 
After completing this he could turn to all the textbooks in the 
field in question and make a list based on the suggestions 
found therein. He could then turn to syllabuses and courses 
of study in the field ; also ask his fellow teachers and noted 
historians to submit lists. He might, furthermore, examine 
current literature to find what dates-events occur again and 
again there ; and finally, he might, as he would in the field 
of American history, turn to some lists already made by com- 
mittees of teachers. Since no teacher will have time to make a 
list based on all these methods of procedure, he will either 
have to use the one he makes himself with little or no assist- 
ance, or adopt one made by a committee^ or an individual. 

1 In the field of American history the teacher will find a list of dates- 
events proposed by a committee of which the writer was chairman. For 
the complete report of this committee see either the School Review, Sep- 
tember, 1918, or the Historical Outlook, November, 1918. 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 223 

While the teacher should have the list of dates-events made 
up before beginning any particular course, it should not in all 
probability be given the pupils at the outset. An effective 
method of procedure in this connection is to let the pupils feel 
that they have some part in making the list. For example, on 
finishing the period of Expansion and Conflict in American 
history a retrospective view of it could be made. This would 
include among other things the selection of the dates-events 
falling within the period which seem worth remembering. If 
the teacher has taught the period with these well in mind and 
given each proper emphasis, the class can be relied upon to 
name and discuss them when given the opportunity. Such a 
procedure will save this sort of work from the formal character 
which it too often possesses. 

Historical Personages to Know and Identify 

Similar to the problem of selecting a list of dates-events is 
that of deciding upon the historical personages to know and 
identify. In this case, however, there are certain complexities 
not found in the making of the dates-events list. It seems 
necessary to make for each course two lists of personages to 
know and remember rather than one. One could designate 
these lists with the terms "long" and "short." The latter 
would include from twenty to thirty personages in each course 
with whom the student would be expected to become well 
acquainted. In the junior high school, students should be 
able to write a statement of approximately 200 words in 
length about each character on the short list. These statements 
should be written as the course progresses and the characters 
appear. No references will be needed in preparing them, pro- 
vided the teacher duly emphasizes the work of each personage 
about whom he wishes such a statement to be written. The 
long list will include individuals for identification only. The 
following is an example of what is meant by the short list. 



224 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

PERSONAGES TO KNOW AND IDENTIFY IN AMERICAN 
HISTORY 

At the end of the junior high-school course the student should 
be able to write a statement of about 200 words in length about 
each of the following : 

Samuel Adams General Lafayette 

Thomas H. Benton "^ La Salle 

Daniel Boone , Robert E. Lee 

John C. Calhoun ^ Abraham Lincoln 

Henry Clay James Madison 

Christopher Columbus John Marshall 

Jefferson Davis William McKinley 

Dorothea Dix >^'' James Monroe 

Stephen A. Douglas Samuel F. B. Morse 

Cyrus W. Field •— " William Penn 

Benjamin Frankhn William Pitt 

Robert Fulton Theodore Roosevelt 

Ulysses S. Grant Harriet Beecher Stowe 

Alexander Hamilton '^ George Washington 

Patrick Henry Daniel Webster 

Andrew Jackson Eli Whitney^ 
Thomas Jefferson 

The lists of historical personages would be used in about 
the same way as a list of dates-events. Neither of them 
should be given the pupils on beginning the course, since they 
are more for the use of the teacher than of the students. Just 
as the student should be able to make a list of the most 
important dates-events on completing the period of Expansion 
and Conflict in American history, so should he be able to 
make a short and a long list of historical personages. The 
character of this performance will, of course, depend upon 
the emphasis the teacher places on certain individuals as 
he teaches the period. In most cases it will be worth while 

1 School Reviezv, XXVI, 7 ; also Historical Outlook, IX, 445. A long list 
in the same field may be found here also. 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 225 

to have each member of the class actually write the 200- 
word statement about each of the most significant personages 
whose work falls within the period. The following is an 
example of what a statement of approximately 200 words 
about Henry Clay might contain. It will be observed that it 
is more than a tabulation of abstract uninteresting and un- 
important biographical facts. 

HENRY CLAY 

Henry Clay was a prominent character in American history 
through the latter half of the period we have called Nationalism 
and Democracy and most of the period designated as Expansion 
and Conflict, 1829-1865. He first came into prominence in con- 
nection with the War of 1812, being one of the main leaders in 
bringing it on and one of our representatives at the peace table 
which ended it. He did his first work as a great compromiser in 
1820 in connection with the Missouri Compromise. He was also 
prominent in bringing about two other great compromises, in the 
controversies over the tariff in the early thirties and the Great 
Compromise of 1850. 

In his day Clay was known as a Westerner, being from Ken- 
tucky. Throughout his political career he worked first for the 
nation as a whole and second for the West. He was a stanch 
advocate of internal improvements and a protective tariff, both 
of which he felt were needed by the West. His chief ambition in 
life he never attained, namely, the election to the office of president 
of his country, for which he always seemed to be running. Even 
though he did not reach the object of his life's ambition and 
have the opportunity of serving his country in the capacity of 
president, he gained sufficient distinction in his capacity as Speaker 
of the House of Representatives, as Secretary of State, and as 
senator to place him among the most distinguished men of 
his time. 

The following are some statements which satisfy the de- 
mands of the term ^^ identify" used in speaking of the long 
list of personages : 



226 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

1. Benjamin Harrison was president from 1889 to 1893. He 
was defeated for reelection by Grover Cleveland, whom he had 
defeated in 1888. 

2. Cyrus McCormick invented the reaper, which in time revolu- 
tionized the methods of harvesting small grains. 

3. Sir Francis Drake was the first Enghshman to circumnavigate 
the globe. 

4. Horace Mann was a great educational reformer, doing his 
work in the latter part of the period of Expansion and Conflict. 

5. Sir William Johnson was the great Indian Agent who did 
so much to keep the Iroquois Indians on the side of the English 
during the French and Indian War. 

The Overview of the Entire Field 

The overview should be in narrative form, the general 
organization of the field being the outline to follow in prepar- 
ing it. In all probability there should be two of these narra- 
tives, a brief one and a long one. The first is for use in 
'/'beginning the course, the second in ending it. The teacher 
should actually write out the short story, but not necessarily 
the long one, because each pupil will be able to make a long 
story of his own. The following story of one of the main 
divisions of American history will give an idea of what the 
long story should contain. The teacher will have little dif- 
ficulty in formulating a short story based on it.^ 

A STORY OF THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND 
EXPLORATION, 1492-1607 

What we now know as North America was discovered in the 
year a.d. iooo by some missionaries from Norway on their way 
to Greenland, which had been discovered some years prior to this 
date. Leif Ericson, sometimes known as Leif the Lucky and Leif, 
son of Eric the Red, was the leader of this holy expedition. The 

1 The best short story of the entire field of American history that has 
come to the writer's attention is Eva March Tappan's Little Book of Our 
Country, pubHshed in 191 9 by Association Press, 347 Madison Avenue, 
New York. 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 227 

name "Vinland" was given to the land discovered, because of the 
abundance of grapes growing there. It is generally agreed, how- 
ever, that it must have been somewhere in the neighborhood of 
what is now Nova Scotia or New England, and that to Leif, son 
of Eric the Red, belongs the honor of having first discovered the 
New World. 

We best know these brave and adventurous sailors from Nor- 
way, Sweden, and Denmark by the name Northmen, who during the 
tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries made many cruises to the 
western lands. Some settlements were made in Iceland and Green- 
land and probably in Vinland. While these voyages and settlements 
were probably known to the people of southern and southwestern 
Europe, they seem to have had no permanent interest in them. 
This is explained by the fact that Europe during the three centuries 
prior to 1600 had its face turned eastward rather than westward. 
The early Crusades established eastern connections, which were kept 
up for two or more centuries. A great trade in both natural and 
manufactured products sprang up between Europe and the Moham- 
medan lands. The cities of Genoa and Venice, in Italy, were the 
European terminals of this vast eastern trade. From these two 
cities all western Europe received many of life's luxuries, and a 
multitude of men grew vastly rich in handling them. 

Up to 1453 Constantinople was in the hands of the Christians. 
The Crusades had failed permanently to check the westward march 
of the Mohammedans ; so when they captured this city much 
of Europe's trade with the Far East was destroyed. The Italian 
cities began- at once to decline in importance. The center of 
navigation now moved to Lisbon, Portugal, and Palos, Spain. Both 
of these nations now began the race to the East Indies by a new 
and all-sea route. Through the inspiration of Henry the Navigator, 
Dias reached the southern extremity of Africa, and in 1497 the 
journey was completed under the leadership of Vasco da Gama, who 
reached Calicut, India, in this year. 

While the king of Portugal was straining his commercial resources 
to discover a new and all-water route to the East Indies, the 
king and queen of Spain were not entirely idle. In 1492 Columbus 
sailed under the flag of Spain to discover an all-water route to 
the land of spices and pearls. His plan was to sail directly west 



228 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

and enter China through the front door rather than the back, as 
the Portuguese were trying to do. After many days of dangerous 
sailing, the little fleet of three vessels and some ninety men landed 
on a small island in what we now know as the West Indies. Before 
Columbus returned to Spain in 1493, Cuba and Haiti were dis- 
covered and slightly explored. In three subsequent voyages made 
by this brave sailor other islands of the West Indies, Trinidad 
Island, near the mouth of the Orinoco River, and the shores of 
Honduras, in Central America, were discovered. While Columbus 
failed to find an ocean route to India, as he still thought he had 
found in 1506 when he died, he did even a greater thing — he put 
the most advanced ideas of his day relative to the shape of the 
earth to a test, and by so doing discovered a New World. This in 
time proved to be a much greater accomplishment than finding an 
all-sea route to an old one. 

During the first half of the sixteenth century Spain and Portugal 
were the two great maritime powers of Europe. There seems to 
have been an agreement between these two powers that the former 
should confine its exploring activities to seeking the Far East by a 
western route, and the latter by a southeastern one, around south- 
ern Africa. The fact that Portugal succeeded in reaching the goal 
of her desire in 1497 and established a lucrative trade with the 
East only spurred Spain to more strenuous efforts to complete 
v/hat Columbus had begun; so between 1500 and 1550 many 
exploring, colonizing, and conquering expeditions were sent out 
under her flag. Noted among the early ones of these voyages was 
the one„made by Americus Vespucius, an Italian navigator in the 
service of Spain, in whose honor America was named. On return- 
ing in 1499 from a voyage to the northeastern coast of South 
America, Vespucius wrote an account of the country he had visited. 
In this account he suggested that a New World had really been 
discovered. A few years later, a geographer by the name of Martin 
Waldseemiiller in a Httle essay on the constitution of the universe 
suggested that the New World, having been found by Americus, 
should be named in his honor America. From this slight begin- 
ning the idea of naming the New World America developed, 
and in 1541 the name was applied to both continents as we know 
them today. 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 229 

The chief successors of Columbus saihng under the flag of Spain 
were Balboa, Ponce de Leon, Magellan, Cortez, Narvaez, De Vaca, 
De Soto, and Coronado. Balboa, a bankrupt farmer, in an attempt 
to escape his creditors, secretly embarked with a recruiting expedition 
to the northern shores of South America. After a time the expedi- 
tion landed on the Isthmus of Darien, where it was learned from the 
Indians that there existed beyond the southward mountains a great 
water whose waves washed shores where gold was so plentiful that 
the commonest utensils were made of it. This body of water 
Balboa saw in 15 13, after many days of the most strenuous travel. 
He named it the South Sea and took possession of all the land 
washed by its waters for his master, the king of Spain. 

In the same year (1513) that Balboa discovered the Pacific 
Ocean, Ponce de Leon sailed from Cuba in his search for gold and 
a fabulous fountain of youth and discovered, on Easter Sunday, 
the eastern coast of Florida. Six years later Magellan set out 
from Spain on his voyage which, when ended, proved to the world 
that the earth is round. After sailing south along the eastern 
coast of South America, Magellan finally discovered the strait which 
ever since has borne his name. For more than a month his ships 
battled with the dangers of this giant strait. Finally the passage 
through it was completed and the crew entered the South Sea, to 
which Magellan gave the name "Pacific Ocean." Weeks and weeks 
were spent on this body of water. At last, Magellan discovered 
the Phihppine Islands, Avhere he was killed in a battle with the 
natives. One of his vessels finally reached Spain by the way of 
the Indian Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope, after an absence of 
three years, thus ending one of the greatest feats of navigation 
that has ever been performed. 

While Magellan was on his remarkable voyage around the world 
Cortez was making one of the greatest conquests in history — 
the conquest of central Mexico. After two years of hard fighting 
and enduring the severest hardships Cortez conquered this rich 
country, over which a government was set under the name of 
"New Spain." Thus was established the first great colony of 
Spain on the continent of America, from which great quantities 
of gold and silver poured into the coffers of her king. Similar 
conquests were made in South America and attempted in the 



230 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

region north of the Gulf of Mexico. The two chief attempts to 
conquer the latter region were made by Narvaez in 1528 and 
De Soto in 1 539-1 542. While both attempts ended disastrously, the 
latter is important because the Mississippi River was discovered 
by De Soto in the spring of 1541. This great river was reached 
after a fruitless search through what is now Georgia, Alabama, 
and Mississippi for what was thought at that time to be the "richest 
country in the world." Crossing over into what is now the state 
of Arkansas, De Soto continued his search, which ended in his 
death in 1542. The survivors of the expedition built boats and 
floated down the Mississippi, and finally reached some Spanish 
settlements. 

Some survivors of Narvaez's expedition, after eight years of 
wandering and many adventures, finally reached the Spanish settle- 
ment founded by Cortez on the Gulf of California. Their glowing 
stories of the rich cities which they had visited in their wanderings 
through what is now southwestern United States influenced Coro- 
nado to lead an expedition from Mexico northward in search of 
them. After nearly two years (i 540-1 542) of wandering the expedi- 
tion returned, having advanced as far north and east as the present 
state of Kansas and discovered the Colorado Canyon, a number 
of Indian pueblos, and the "hunchback cow," or buffalo, but no 
great riches such as they had hoped to find. 

With a few other minor expeditions into what is now southern 
United States, Spain gave up her quest for gold and silver in these 
parts. In fact, on the first of January, 1562, there was probably 
not a Spaniard on the soil of the mainland of what is now the 
United States. 

The chief rivals of Spain in the New World were England and 
France. These two nations gradually awoke to the consciousness 
of the opportunities they were losing in America, while at the 
same time Spain became so beset with political and religious 
quarrels at home that she was fortunately unable to prevent other 
nations settling the lands she claimed. 

England began her voyages to the New World as early as 1497, 
when John Cabot discovered the mainland of North America some- 
where north of Halifax, on a voyage in which he was seeking an 
all-water route to China. The importance of this voyage lies in 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 231 

the fact that it gave Englishmen the right to occupy large 
portions of North America. It did not, however, stimulate them 
to a great effort like that which Spain put forth immediately 
following the voyages of Columbus. The explanation of England's 
inactivity is found in the fact that there was enough excitement at 
home for most Englishmen during the first half of the sixteenth 
century, for it was during this time that the country was attempt- 
ing to recover from the effects of the War of the Roses and 
adjust itself to the changes brought about by the Reformation. 
But when England did begin her aggressive policy to overthrow 
Spain's maritime power, things moved rather rapidly. To John 
Hawkins and Francis Drake, two of England's greatest sixteenth- 
century seamen, much of the credit for the rapid movement of 
things maritime was due.. The former did his best work in making 
ready the royal navy to dispute the supremacy of the sea with 
the Armadas of Spain ; and the latter in his onslaught on the 
Spanish colonies — thus diminishing the resources of Philip II, 
the king of Spain. 

Drake is best known, however, for his famous voyage around the 
world. After the West Indies came to be rather securely guarded 
by Spain, he conceived the plan of sailing through the Strait of 
Magellan and capturing all the Spanish treasure on the west coast. 
So in 1577 he set forth to attack this region and sail on seas never 
before known to an English sailor. After plundering the west 
coast of South America and Mexico and failing to find an opening 
to the east, the expedition, rather than face the dangers of return- 
ing by way of the Atlantic, chose to cross the Pacific and return to 
England by way of the Cape of Good Hope. The voyage was 
successfully completed in 1579 when the Pelican sailed into 
Plymouth harbor with an immense booty. Drake was later 
knighted by the queen on the quarter-deck of his ship, and the 
wrath of the Spaniards was increased immeasurably. 

While Drake was on his way home from his dangerous cruise 
a new line of exploring and colonizing activity broke out in 
England. In 1578 Queen Elizabeth granted Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
and his heirs the right to discover, explore, and inhabit certain 
lands in the New World. Sir Humphrey's efforts cost him his Hfe, 
for on the return voyage from Newfoundland and the country 



232 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

southward his vessel went down and all on board were lost. His 
brother Adrian and half-brother Walter Raleigh succeeded to the 
rights of the dead explorer. These gentlemen lost no time in 
sending other expeditions to the western shores; in 1584 one 
fitted out by Raleigh landed on what is now the coast of North 
Carohna and remained for the brief period of two months. The 
next year another expedition was sent out and finally established a 
settlement on Roanoke Island. After a short stay the settlers 
were picked up by Drake on one of his later voyages and taken 
back to England. The third and final attempt was made by 
Raleigh in 1587. In this year three vessels brought to Virginia 
from Plymouth, England, 1550 men, women, and children and 
settled them on the same island that had been deserted by the 
former band. The ships that brought them soon returned to 
England for suppHes. On their return four years later nothing 
remained but the houses which had been built by the colonists. 
The fate of this "lost colony" is still a matter of conjecture 
among historians. 

England's struggle with Spain for the supremacy of the sea 
ended in her favor in 1588, when her fleet of fifty fighting ships 
encountered and defeated a fleet of sixty-two Spanish vessels in 
the English Channel. Spain attempted to retaliate upon England 
after this disastrous defeat, but with meager success. The work of 
Hawkins in modernizing the English fighting ships was too much for 
the slow, conser\'ative eft^orts of the once powerful Spaniards. 

Besides England, Spain had a rival in France for power in both 
the Old World and the New. The king of France was not slow to 
perceive what great advantages came to his rival from the riches 
drawn from the New World, so he resolved to send an expedition 
to this region in order that he himself might profit by some of these 
riches. Verrazano, a native of Florence, Italy, was chosen to lead 
the expedition. He set sail in 1524 and succeeded in exploring the 
American coast from North Carolina to Maine. On the way 
northward the vessel entered New York harbor, possibly something 
no other vessel had ever done. Little came from the voyage, since 
the king was so busy with affairs elsewhere. Ten years later, 
however, the attempt was renewed under Cartier, who made in 
all four voyages and gave the French their claim to Canada. On 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 233 

these voyages Cartier discovered and explored the St. Lawrence 
River as far as where Montreal now stands. No settlements were 
attempted at this time in the North, but some definite attempts 
were later made in the South. 

In 1562 Jean Ribaut led an expedition to the American coast. 
He landed in the neighborhood of where St. Augustine now stands. 
After he sailed northward for a considerable distance, a landing was 
effected, and a garrison of thirty men was left at Port Royal 
Sound to hold the place. Two years later recruits came out under 
the leadership of Laudonniere, a Huguenot. These people had really 
come to plant a colony. After a year of the severest hardships, 
however, they were attacked by the Spaniards under the leadership 
of Menendez and but few escaped his cruelty. No more attempts 
were made by the French to settle in this region. All their efforts 
were henceforth directed to the frozen North, where in the course 
of time they built up a great colonial empire, to which was given 
the name of New France. 

Two of the most noted leaders in founding this empire were 
Champlain and De Monts. Through their efforts a colony was 
established at Port Royal, Nova Scotia, in 1604. Explorations were 
also made along the eastern shores of New England and up the 
St. Lawrence, where a trading post was established at what is now 
Quebec, in 1609. While here Champlain conceived the idea of 
uniting the Indian tribes on the northern banks of the St. Lawrence 
and conquering the Iroquois south of this region. With a small 
band of these northern Indians he made his way up the Richeheu 
River into the lake that now bears his name. Somewhere on its 
western edge he met and defeated a small party of Iroquois. This 
was the beginning of that eternal hatred of this great Indian 
nation for the French. A few weeks later a Dutch ship, com- 
manded by the Englishman Henry Hudson, encountered another 
Iroquois band, which he entertained royally. Henceforth this great 
confederacy, occupying such an important position, was the ally 
of the Dutch and English and an enemy of the French, thus closing 
a large part of the continent to Frenchmen and at the same time 
protecting the Enghsh colonies from French attacks. 

After these vigorous beginnings of Champlain and his followers, 
things moved rather slowly in New France for a half-century or 



234 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

more. It was not until 1664 that things took on a new life. At 
this date the population was doubled, and soon other explorers 
were busy enlarging the French domain. Chief among these were 
Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle. The first two, in 1673, went down 
the Mississippi River as far south as the Arkansas, returning by 
way of the Illinois River to Lake Michigan, near the present site 
of Chicago. La Salle in 1 681- 168 2 completed what Marquette and 
Joliet began. As early as 1670 he had reached the Ohio River. 
Hearing of the voyage of Marquette, he resolved to push on to the 
mouth of the Mississippi and take possession of the country for 
France. This he succeeded in accomplishing in the spring of 1682. 
France was now in possession of the St. Lawrence valley, the 
Great Lakes region, and the Mississippi valley — the heart of 
the American continent ; Spain, of Florida and the country to the 
south and southwest ; while all that territory along the Atlantic 
from Port Royal to St. Augustine was left solely to the English- 
man and his kinsfolk from northern Europe. This locahty offered 
slight hope for immediate gain, so the French and the Spaniards 
passed it by, unmindful of the fact that there existed nowhere on 
the surface of the earth a region better fitted for permanent 
colonization for Europeans. 

The Textbook Analysis, 

Since the general and specific methods of procedure and 
the library have been discussed at length elsewhere/ no 
further consideration need be given them here. Attention, 
therefore, may be turned at once to the problem of textbook 
analysis as a means whereby the teacher acquaints himself 
with the main tools of his trade. As a guide in this analysis 
the main divisions of the course which have previously been 
determined upon should be used. They are the big units 
around which all material must center. Because of this fact 
it is very necessary that the teacher know what the textbook 
he is to use has on each main division and also what other 
texts in the same field contain. By knowing the first of these 
facts he can at once determine just where and how much the 
1 See Chapters V and IX. 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 235 



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Andrews : Hist, of the United States 
Ashley : American History . . . 
Channing: Students' Histoiy of the 

United States 

Cousins and Hill : Ameiican History 

for Schools 

Fiske : History of the United States 
.Fite : History of the United States . 
Forman : Advanced American Hist. 
Hart : Essentials in American Hist. 
Hart : Nnv American History . . 

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Muzzey : American Histoiy . , . 
Stephenson : An American History 
West : Hist, of the American People 
Teaching time in days and per cent 
(d = days) 



236 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

adopted text must be supplemented. A tabular view (Table 
VII) of a number of texts in senior high-school history will 
illustrate the sort of analysis that is meant here. 

The practical use that can be made of the material in Table 
VII becomes evident as soon as one begins to interpret it. 
Suppose the adopted text is McLaughlin's History of the 
American Nation and the teacher desires to adapt the organi- 
zation of the field found in the table and the time to spend 
on each main division to it. If nine days are to be spent 
on the first big division, the text will have to be supplemented, 
since it devotes but six pages to it. From the data before him, 
the teacher knows at once that the best parallel texts to use 
for the much-needed supplementary material are Hart's 
Essentials in American History, Cousins and Hill's American 
History for Schools, and Fiske's History of the United States. 
Running on through the remaining large division it will be 
seen that material in addition to that found in the text would 
have to be sought for divisions II, IV, V, VII, and VIII. In 
each of these cases the table tells the best book to select for 
one type of supplementary material. 

Organization of Each Main Topic under Each 
Large Division 

After the textbooks in the field of history he is organizing 
have been analyzed and the data thrown in tabular form, the 
teacher is ready to begin the most important and at the same 
time most difficult part of his work of course-planning, namely, 
the selection of the main topics in each large division and the 
organization of each of these topics for teaching purposes. 
To show concretely a form this work might take and what is 
involved in organizing a topic for teaching purposes let us 
suppose the period is that of Colonization and the Struggle 
for Supremacy in North America in American history. The 
general organization of this period for teaching purposes in 
the senior high school might be as follows: 



PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 237 

COLONIZATION AND THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY IN 
NORTH AMERICA, 1607-1763 

A. Seventeenth-century southern seaboard settlements. 

B. Seventeenth-century settlements in the eastern sections of 

the colonies north of Maryland. 
C The back-country settlements. 

D. Spanish and French settlements and activities. 

E. French and Indian Wars. 

F. Cross-section view of colonial life about 1763. 

Suppose now that one desires to organize topic F, "Cross- 
section view of colonial life about 1763," for day-by-day 
teaching purposes. This would involve more detail than any 
other phase of the work thus far discussed. The form given on 
pages 238-243 has been used by the writer with results com- 
mensurate with the efforts required to make it. 

The advantages to the teacher of having an entire course in 
the form of the one topic illustrated above are worth the time it 
takes to do the work of arranging it in this form, ^n the first 
place day-by-day assignments can be made with definiteness and 
dispatch, since the first column contains exactly what he desires 
to teach and the second the necessary reference material on 
each topic. The numbering will facilitate matters here because 
the reference number is the same in each case as the topic in 
the first column on which it contains material. Inasmuch as the 
number of pages in a reference is always given, the teacher 
will know just how much the student is expected to read. 

^nother advantage of this form for the teacher's daily 
lesson plans is that it is accumulative. For example, should 
the teacher find better references and illustrative materials 
as he goes over the field from time to time, there is always 
space to include them where they belong. Furthermore, 
the teacher will often on completing a lesson think of things 
he might have done. If these are inserted in their proper place, 
he can benefit by them the next time he teaches the lesson. 



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PLANNING THE COURSE AND LESSON 245 

The advantage of having all the main features of the 
lesson before him while it is in progress is one not to be over- 
looked, ^eachers sometimes forget to do just what they have 
planned for a particular lessonj If the dates-events, person- 
ages, and geographic feature which he wishes to emphasize in 
each lesson are before him, they are almost sure to receive the 
attention due them. Furthermore in the quiet of his study 
hours the teacher will think of things to do that will never 
come on the spur of the moment. If these are before him in 
their proper place they will be done when planned. 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Bishop, Mildred C, and Robinson, Edward J^. Practical Map Exer- 
cises in Medieval and Modern European History. Ginn and Com- 
pany, 1920. 

Bone, H. A. Geographic Factors in American History. Author, Sioux 
City, Iowa, 191 7. 

Committee of Seven. "Value of Historical Study," The Study of His- 
tory in Schools, pp. 16 ff. The Macmillan Company, 1899. 

Knowlton, D. C. niustrated Topics for Ancient History. McKinley 
Pub. Co., Philadelphia, 1913. 

McKinley, A. E. Illustrated Topics for American History. McKinley 
Pub. Co., Philadelphia, 1912. 

Tappan, Eva March. Little Book of Our Country. Houghton Mifflin 
Company, 1920. Originally published by the Association Press, 
347 Madison Ave., New York. 

Taylor, R. G. Outlines of American Industrial History. Kansas State 
Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas, 1915. 

Tryon, R. M, "The Organization of United States History for Teaching 
Purposes in Grades Seven and Eight," Elementary School Journal, 
XVI (1916), 247 ff. ' 

Tryon, R. M., and Others. " Progressive Requirements in American His- 
tory for Junior and Senior High Schools," School Review, XXVI 
(1918), I ff., also Historical Outlook, IX (1918), 442 ff. 



CHAPTER XII 

THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 

There is in existence a considerable amount of information 
relative to the high-school history teacher which should be of 
interest and practical value to the beginner in the field and to 
the experienced teacher as well, since it deals with so many 
phases of the history teacher's professional career. As con- 
sidered in this chapter these phases relate to the equipment 
of a high-school history teacher, the subjects he actually 
teaches, the measurement of his efficiency, himself and his 
methods as viewed by high-school undergraduates and grad- 
uates, and his professional library. If data on the tangible 
rewards of the high-school history teacher were not so difficult 
to keep up-to-date, a discussion of this sort might with pro- 
priety include material on salary schedules in the various 
sections of the country. In view, however, of the general 
dislocation of these schedules brought about by the World 
War and the accompanying high cost of living, it does not seem 
worth while to do more than mention the subject of salary, 
even though it is and must remain a consideration of great 
concern to all history teachers. 

The Equipment of the High-School History 
Teacher 

It is quite generally agreed that on beginning his career a 
high-school history teacher should know considerable history 
and have a few ideas concerning the best methods of imparting 
his knowledge to others. To these two phases of his equipment 
one might apply the terms "academic" and "professional." 

246 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 247 

There was a time when many people felt that academic equip- 
ment was all that a history teacher needed in order to succeed. 
While a few individuals still believe in this fallacious doctrine, 
the weight of opinion now is in favor of an equipment which 
slights neither the academic nor the professional. There has 
been so much progress toward this much-to-be-desired goal 
in recent years that even teachers of history in colleges and 
universities are recommending that students majoring in their 
department with a view to teaching the subject include in 
their preparatory work a liberal amount of professional train- 
ing. The very general present-day interest in the professional 
equipment of the high-school history teacher is evidenced by 
the number of courses in the teaching of history that have 
recently appeared in colleges and universities. Only a few 
years ago these courses were exceptions, while now there is 
scarcely an institution in the country which makes any pretense 
at the training of teachers that does not offer one or more 
courses in the teaching of history some time during a school year. 
There has been much written during the past ten years on 
what the academic equipment of high-school history teachers 
should be. Among these discussions there is one that is more 
or less authoritative. This is a report on "The Certification 
of High-School Teachers of History," made to the Mississippi 
Valley Historical Association in 1913.^ This committee set 
down certain specific academic requirements in social science 
for prospective high-school history teachers. The most impor- 
tant of these may be summarized as follows : 

1. A college student intending to teach history in the high school 
should specialize enough "to understand the scope of the subject, 
to know something of its methods and materials, and to be able 
to read independently and intelligently along the lines of his 
teaching. 

2. The prospective high-school history teacher should devote 
from about one fourth to one third of his time in college to the 

1 Published in full in History Teacher's Magazine, IV, i69ff. 



248 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

study of history. In points or semester hours this would mean 
from 25 to 40 out of an aggregate of 120. 

3. In addition to the 25 to 40 points given to history proper, 
the prospective history teacher should devote some time to such 
closely related subjects as poHtical economy, poUtical science, and 
sociology. 

4. The history courses should include: (i) one or more elemen- 
tary courses such as a survey of some European field, ancient, 
medieval, modern, or English, and a general course in American 
history to be required of all prospective history teachers ; (2) ad- 
vanced courses covering the whole field of history or any section ; 
(3) a pro-seminary course in which method and point of view 
are taught. 

5. The elementary courses should require not more than 12 
points, the advanced courses about 20 points, and the pro-seminary 
not over 6 points. 

The sanity and reasonableness of. these recommendations are 
their chief characteristics. The great difficulty in their prac- 
tical application is the fact that so many young people are 
candidates for high-school history positions on graduating who 
had no intention of teaching on entering college. Since so 
many of these well-meaning young people discover what they 
actually want to do so late in their college career, the problem 
of satisfactorily administering any recommendations is next 
to impossible. One redeeming feature, however, in the 
situation as it applies to those who decide late in their 
college career that they want to teach history in the high 
school is the fact that most colleges require for graduation a 
specific amount of work in some one or two departments. 
Hence, if the student whose major subject is history suddenly 
decides, upon graduating, to. seek a position to teach history 
in some high school, he is not wholly unprepared in the 
academic phase of the subject. The unfortunate phase of 
the matter is, as will be shown later, that even though the 
prospective teacher is actually prepared to teach history he will 
probably be called upon to teach a number of other subjects 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 249 

as well, in all of which he will not be equally well prepared. 
And more unfortunately for history than for some of the other 
subjects, a teacher who has specialized in college in a field 
unrelated to history will be asked to teach history, the idea 
being that anyone who can read the adopted textbook from 
day to day can teach the subject. Fortunately such wholly 
unprepared individuals cannot teach history in some states, 
since a certificate in each subject is required. While the 
ability to make a specified grade on a formal examination is 
not absolute proof of adequate academic equipment in history, 
it does indicate that the individual who is able to make a 
satisfactory grade has some knowledge of the subject even 
though he may never have studied college history. 

Hand in hand with academic training and growth in his- 
torical knowledge should go professional training and growth. 
This means that the prospective history teacher must devote 
some time to learning how to teach history before going out 
to practice on helpless high-school youths. It also means that 
after entering upon one's career as a history teacher one must 
continue to read the professional literature on the subject. 
Too many high-school history teachers cross the dead line and 
die at the top. That is, they are teaching as they taught ten 
years ago. Their defense of their methods is the familiar 
one of long use. While in itself this might be a just defense, 
the possibility always exists that there are somewhere in the 
literature of the subject descriptions of more up-to-date and 
effective ways of doing the thing, of which the teacher, who 
is not up to the minute in the professional reading, is ignorant. 
Hence the attempted justification of his methods on the basis 
of long use becomes an excuse for having died at the pinnacle 
of his career which he reached during his younger days. 

The amount and character of the professional training 
which prospective high-school history teachers should have 
are unsettled questions. The committee referred to above said 
that where from 25 to 40 points of a possible 120 were devoted 



2 50 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

to history, from 2 to 4 of these points should include methods 
of teaching the subject. In terms of months this would be 
about three out of a college course of thirty-six months in 
duration. To those who employ college graduates to teach 
history in the high school, this small amount of time devoted 
to strictly professional training during the preparatory stage 
of the teacher's career is wholly unsatisfactory. Speaking 
approximately, these individuals would increase the foregoing 
points fivefold or sixfold. In other words, they would demand 
that not less than one sixth of the prospective history teacher's 
time in college be spent on the professional phase of his 
equipment. 

Granting that the high-school teacher in preparation, whether 
for junior or senior high-school teaching, is willing to spend 
one fourth of his time in college on academic equipment and 
one sixth on professional, the question of the content of the 
courses he will be expected to take along both of these lines 
is a matter of much importance. The report on "The Certifi- 
cation of High-School Teachers of History"^ answered this 
question in a general way. Such broad statements, however, 
do not always secure the desired results. What is needed most 
at the present time are courses in history planned and taught 
with a view to preparing young people to teach high-school 
history. As now planned and taught most college courses exist 
more for the sake of the subject, history, than for the sake of 
the students pursuing them. A change of emphasis is needed. 
Courses for prospective teachers should seek both their content 
and their general organization in the prevalent high-school 
history courses. In other words, instead of forcing students 
into highly specialized courses which, for the lack of time, make 
it impossible to cover during one's college career more than a 
limited amount of the material found in present-day high-school 
history courses, it would be far better to make it possible for 
them to study in college all of the fields of history which they 

1 See p. 247. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 251 

will actually have to teach. For example, the present tend- 
ency in the junior high school is to include courses in the 
European beginnings of American history and in American his- 
tory proper, and in the senior high school, courses in modern 
European history and American history. Now it is evident 
that prospective teachers cannot cover each of these fields in 
the time they have for history during their college careers 
if they have nothing but specialized courses offered them. To 
meet the actual needs of these people colleges should offer them 
three one-year courses, one devoted to early European history, 
one to modern European history, and one to American history. 
This arrangement would make it possible for history teachers 
in training to cover in a unified and connected way during 
their college careers all of the field of history which they 
will subsequently be called upon to teach. These courses 
would furnish teachers with a fund of information that they 
could actually use, instead of turning them out with a body 
of technical, unconnected, and highly specialized historical 
knowledge which they find to their dismay on entering upon 
their teaching careers that they cannot use. Scores of teachers 
have said to the writer that, on leaving college with a feeling 
that they were well equipped in subject matter because of the 
number of courses taken in history, thej'' found that they 
really had to learn a new body of material before they could 
teach what a modern high-school history department demands. 
Of course their training in college history facilitated the learn- 
ing of this new body of knowledge and for this reason was 
not wholly lost. In spite of this fact, however, it would seem 
much better for the prospective history teacher to prepare on 
things he will actually teach rather than to learn them after 
beginning his teaching career. 

The present situation with reference to the content of the 
professional courses to be taken by the high-school history 
teacher in training is more hopeful than the one relating to the 
academic studies. On the whole, it is fairly well agreed that 



2 52 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

the time to be spent on professional equipment should be 
divided about equally between general courses in education 
and special courses in the teaching of history, including prac- 
tice teaching. While the content of the courses in education 
is by no means uniform the country over, or satisfactory to 
those administering them, there are hopeful signs for better- 
ment even along this line. Most of the courses in the teaching 
of history are too new to possess the attribute of finality. 
To assist those interested in them there exist certain recom- 
mendations of another committee of the Mississippi Valley 
Historical Association.^ This committee proposes three types 
of work of a professional nature as it relates to the field of 
history. Recognizing the fact that most of the courses in 
history which teachers have been obliged to take in the 
university are sections of the field somewhat remote from the 
high-school division of the subject, and therefore do not give 
close acquaintance with the high-school material and field, 
the committee suggests "a course for students at the end of 
their last year in college which will give them a closer acquaint- 
ance with the content and material of the high-school field of 
history. Besides this course the committee recommends one 
in the teaching of history and one in practice teaching. In 
the teaching course the committee would have some consider- 
ation given to each of the following topics: the general 
purposes of the high school and the values of the study of 
history in their bearing on these ; the place of history in the 
curriculum of the high school, together with an inquiry as to 
the scope and content of high-school units of history ; the 
special demands made by the subject of history on the 
teacher ; what it means to study a history lesson ; the use of 
the textbook ; practice work in assigning a textbook lesson ; 
the use of source material in the high school ; practice work in 
assigning lessons in source material ; collateral reading — what 

1 " Certification of High-School Teachers of History," History Teacher's 
Magazine, VI, 1 50 ff. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 253 

to use and how to use it ; geography's relation to history — maps 
and map work ; pictures — what to use and how to use them ; 
practice work in assigning a lesson on picture material ; the 
possibilities of written work, including uses of the blackboard ; 
the history recitation ; special problems of method presented 
by special phases of the subject ; devices for arousing interest ; 
the first recitations of new year — their special problems and 
opportunities ; formation of plan of semester work in any one 
field of high-school history ; reports on observation work ; and 
practice work in conducting a recitation.'^ 

The most directly beneficial phase of the professional prepa- 
ration of the teacher in training is practice teaching, providing 
it is done under favorable conditions and expert direction. 
While colleges and universities are slowly coming to recognize 
the value of this sort of training, they do not as a rule require 
it of their graduates who enter the teaching profession. This 
being the case, it becomes necessary to convince prospective 
teachers of the practical benefits to be derived from a well- 
directed course in practice teaching. 

While there have been no exhaustive studies of the results of 
practice teaching on teaching efficiency, the meager data so 
far collected seem to warrant the conclusion that in the judg- 
ment of superintendents of schools and of high-school teachers 
who successfully completed a practice course during their pre- 
paratory period such work is of great value. Superintendents 
are of the opinion that "one semester of high-school practice 
teaching under a competent critic produces a more successful 
teacher than does two, three, or even four years of schoolroom 
experience of the teacher not so trained."- Thus it will be 
seen that in the judgment of some superintendents practice 
teaching is a short-cut route to success. Since it is becoming 

^ Report, op. cit. p. 152. 

^ Childs, " The Results of Practice Teaching on Teaching Efficiency," 
in Practice Teaching for Teachers itt Seco7tdary Schools, Bureau of Education 
Bulletin (1917), No. 29, p. 35. 



254 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

more and more difficult for young people with no first-hand 
experience with teaching problems to secure desirable positions 
upon graduating from college, information concerning the 
practical value of well-directed experience with actual class- 
room situations should be given them early in their college 
careers. This is very necessary, since practice teaching cannot 
be done successfully without certain prerequisites which must 
be taken care of during the early part of one's college course. 

There is an important phase of the history teacher's equip- 
ment not classed as either academic or professional. For 
want of a better name let us call it mental and tempera- 
mental traits and characteristics. It goes without saying that 
no teacher can teach what he does not know and that the 
successful teacher of anything must be able to teach. True 
as these statements are, they are not the only prerequisites 
to the all-round equipment of a history teacher. Certain 
qualities which are either innate or acquired through conscious 
striving must be combined with academic and professional 
equipment before one has other than a mediocre history 
teacher. Some of these qualities are common sense, character, 
aptitude, sympathy, vivacity, openrmindedness, intellectual and 
political honesty, enthusiasm for history, optimism, sound 
judgment, vivid imagination, copious supply of clear and 
simple language, firmness, impartiality, cheerfulness, pleasant- 
ness, and sincerity. These characteristics might be termed 
likable ones in teachers. They are named by high-school 
students when they are asked to designate the traits in 
teachers which make the strongest appeal to them. Table VIII 
summarizes a study along this line which shows the relative 
importance of ten of these qualities in the minds of three 
groups of students. 

In a more recent study than the one summarized in Table 
VIII "willingness to help me" was mentioned 130 times by 
550 high-school students in response to the request, "As you 
think over the teachers who have been or still are most helpful 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 255 



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to you, tell the qualities in them which make the strongest 
appeal to you."^ Patience v/as mentioned 85 times by these 
same students; kindness, 80 times; clearness, 35; sense of 
humor, 32; understanding of students, 24; firmness, 21; 
impartiality, 24 ; cheerfulness and pleasantness, 19 each ; sin- 
cerity, 14; sympathy, 16; and ability to make work interest- 
ing, 21. The writer's own investigations along this same line 
with history teachers especially in mind reveal facts relative 
to the personal and social qualities of teachers similai; to 
the foregoing ones. On one occasion he asked 150 high-school 
graduates to describe the history teacher who had helped them 
most to an appreciation and an understanding of history. In the 
tabulation of the responses to this request the following terms 
were used over and over again : astounding vitality, impartial- 
ity, broad-mindedness, friendliness and kindness to everyone, de- 
sire to help, keen sense of humor, attractive personality, pleasing 
personality, remarkable personality, pleasing manner, interest 
in the subject, personal interest in each pupil, delightful sense 
of humor, enthusiasm for the subject, power to inspire the class, 
ambition and energy, fairness and uprightness, truthfulness and 
exactness, and a companionable disposition. All these personal 
and social qualities in a teacher assume large proportion in the 
minds of their students. The truth of this whole matter is well 
summarized by Superintendent Engleman when he says : 

No amount of learning and no amount of "professional training," 
though each is a sine qua non, can atone for a lack of the human 
touch, and the virtues which endear people to their associates in 
ordinary walks of life. The most scholarly teachers, employing 
the most skillful methods, measured by coldly intellectual standards, 
must largely fail to get desired results if they fail to bring or 
beget the right emotional atmosphere in the schoolroom. Emo- 
tional warmth is just as essential to the growth of ideas as physical 
warmth is to the growth of plants. Frost is as much to be avoided 
in the schoolroom as in the garden. 

^ Engleman, A Survey of the Decatur High School (Decditux, Illinois), p. 23. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 257 

The Subjects History Teachers Teach 

One would naturally suppose that history teachers teach 
history. However, such is not the case in altogether too many 
high schools. Investigations of rather recent date in Kansas, 
Maine, and Illinois unearthed some rather astounding con- 
ditions along this line. A few of the main facts revealed by 
these studies will give prospective history teachers some idea 
of, the conditions they are likely to encounter on entering upon 
their anticipated careers. For example, conditions in Kansas 
around 19 14 as shown by two investigations were as follows: 
But 43.7 per cent of the teachers who had prepared to teach 
history were actually teaching the subject. Facing this fact, 
one might ask with propriety. What were the other 56.3 per 
cent who had prepared to teach history teaching? The 
answer to this question is this, Nearly every subject in a 
modern high-school curriculum, ranging in number from two 
to ten a teacher.^ Furthermore, one of these studies in which 
history was made the center of attention revealed the startling 
fact that it was combined with twenty-seven other subjects, 
numbering from one to five additional ones a teacher. The 
most frequent combinations were history and English, 149 
times out of a possible 420; history and mathematics, 121 
times; history and Latin, 94 ; history and physics, 51 ; history 
and German, 39 ; history and botany, 39. It was also dis- 
covered that history was combined with a single subject 127 
times; with two subjects, 164 times; with three subjects, 76 
times; with four subjects, 12 times; and with five subjects, 
once.^ On .the basis of these findings one must conclude that 
when these studies were made conditions in Kansas relative to 
history teaching were by no means favorable and were more 
or less discouraging to history teachers in training. 

1 Josselyn, Survey of Accredited High Schools, p. 54. 

2 Steeper, " The Status of History Teaching in the High Schools of 
Kansas," School Review, XXII, 191. 



2 58 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Kansas is not alone in the matter of conditions unfavorable to 
good history teaching and a discouraging outlook to those 
preparing to teach the subject. In a study of the history 
teachers in Maine for the year 19 13-19 14 it was discovered that 
but 6 per cent of 156 teachers in 90 high schools made history 
teaching a specialty, the remaining 94 per cent devoting only 
a part of their time to the subject. In a consideration of the 
matter solely from the standpoint of the high schools it was 
found that 10 per cent of those reporting employed a teacher 
to teach history exclusively ; 14 per cent employed him 
primarily to teach history, but in practice he often had to 
teach two other subjects as well ; and 76 per cent gave the 
history to people who happened to have room for it on their 
programs.^ In Illinois at about the same date, in but 95 out 
of 483 high schools was history taught alone. In 171 schools 
it was taught along with one other subject ; in 118, along with 
two other subjects ; in 46, along with three other subjects ; 
and in 42, along with four or more other subjects. The follow- 
ing were some of the peculiar and unfortunate combinations: 

1. History, zoology, physics, chemistry. 

2 . History, Latin, physics, German, physiography, astronomy. 

3. History, physical geography, drawing, botany, domestic 
science, zoology. 

4. History, physics, chemistry, business law, civics, economics. 

5. History, science, arithmetic, geography, civics, algebra. 
Mr. E. R. Sayre, who made this study, commented as 

follows on the combinations he found: 

These examples could be multiplied indefinitely, for they were 
picked almost at random from the reports of the first fifty schools 
which I examined, and they were not chosen from among high 
schools having only three or four teachers but from some having 
as many as twelve.^ 

1 Lewis, " The Teaching of History in Maine," History Teachei^s Maga- 
zine, V, 159. 

^ Proceedings of the High School Conference (November, 1913), p. 274. 
University of Illinois, School of Education. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 259 

The most discouraging fact revealed in this investigation 
was that nine tenths of the teachers who taught history and 
three or more other subjects had no degree ; the idea seem- 
ingly being that the less preparation a teacher has the more 
subjects he can teach. 

In view of the foregoing statistics the following suggestions 
to history teachers in preparation seem relevant : ( i ) The 
chances are few that the inexperienced teacher will be called 
upon to teach history only — one in twenty in some states. 
(2) The combination standing first is: history and English — 
an English teacher teaching English and history, or vice 
versa. (3) A combination of history and mathematics seems 
to stand second and a combination of history and Latin third. 
(4) One desiring to teach high-school history on completing 
a college course should be prepared to conduct classes in 
more than one subject — the safe plan being to make some 
preparation in at least three subjects. 

In order to improve the discouraging conditions now existing 
in the matter of the subjects other than history which history 
teachers teach, those already in the field should demand on all 
possible occasions that they be permitted to devote their entire 
time to the teaching of their chosen subject. If such demands 
can be made sufficiently emphatic and receive the response they 
deserve, the near future will not see 32.5 per cent of the 
teachers of high-school history in a state unprepared to teach 
the subject, and 56.3 per cent of those who prepared to teach 
history teaching other subjects, as was the case in Kansas 
when Josselyn made his report. 

Measuring the High-School History Teacher's 
Efficiency 

It is most important that the teacher know as much about 
the standards whereby he is to be judged as the individual ad- 
ministering them. This being true, it becomes necessary for pro- 
spective as well as actual teachers to give some consideration 



2 6o THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

to failure and success in teaching and to the standards 
by which each is determined and more or less accurately 
measured. Since so many teachers fail (about 42 per cent) 
during their initial year, the problem of failure and some of its 
causes furnishes a very profitable field of investigation for 
beginners. Fortunately some concrete data are in existence 
on this subject. In 191 5 Buellesfield made a study of causes 
of failure among teachers. There were included in this study 
4848 cases in 116 school systems. The seven chief causes 
of failure in the order of importance were weakness in dis- 
cipline, lack of judgment, deficiency in scholarship, poor 
methods, daily preparation insufficient, lack of industry, and 
lack of sympathy. The complete list is given in Table IX. 

The diagnostic value of the material in Table IX both to 
experienced and inexperienced teachers is considerable, for it 
will be observed that nearly all the causes of failure listed 
therein are directly under one's control. A self -inventory 
now and then with the undesirable traits and characteristics 
discovered by Buellesfield clearly in mind would in all prob- 
ability be worth any teacher's making. To make sure that 
such a self-examination is in the main correct, one would do 
well to seek the assistance of others, for it is quite conceivable 
that one might lack sympathy, use poor methods, be deceitful, 
too frivolous, unprofessional, and untidy in dress and never 
discover the fact without the aid of a second party. 

Important as it is that history teachers know wherein they 
are failing, it is equally important that they know something 
of the elements of success or qualities of merit on which their 
success is rated. While there is somewhat of a general agree- 
ment among school administrators and supervisors on the 
fundamental qualities of teaching efficiency, there is no one 
scheme for measuring this efficiency that meets with general 
approval. To acquaint the teacher with the various qualities 
and at the same time to give him an idea of their relative 
importance there is probably no better available information 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 261 



TABLE IX. CAUSES OF FAILURE AMONG TEACHERS 1 



Causes of Failure 



Weakness in discipline 

Lacked judgment 

Deficient in scholarship 

Poor methods 

Daily preparation insufficient 

Lacked industry 

Lacked sympathy 

Too nervous 

Deficient in social qualities 

Unprofessional attitudes 

Unattractive appearance 

Poor health 

Lacked culture and refinement 

Uninterested in work of teaching 

Too many outside interests 

Immoral 

Too frivolous 

Disloyalty 

Could not control temper 

Deceitful . . . 

Untidy in dress 

Remained too long 

Too immature 

Wrong religious views (for that community) . 
Attended places of questionable amusement 
Keeping company with High School boys . 
Use of tobacco 



Chief 
Cause 



114 

45 
42 

41 
'23 
19 
17 
15 
IS 
14 
12 



Contribu- 
tory Cause 



54 
86 
40 
79 
51 
28 

45 
30 
27 
28 
29 

13 

28 
26 

23 
I 

17 
16 

23 
19 
14 
17 
13 
3 
8 



131 

82 
120 
74 
47 
62 

45 
42 
42 
41 
25 
39 
36 
33 
II 

26 

25 

30 

26 

21 

22 

16 

S 

9 

I 

I 



than that given by Boyce in his Methods for Measuring 
Teachers' Efficiency. Table X contains a summary of Boyce's 
study. 

The practical use to be made of the material in Table X 
is the same as that on failure and its causes. The comparative 
rank of each quality should assist a teacher in distinguishing 

^ " Causes of Failure among Teachers," Educational Ad77iinistration and 
Supervision^ I, 451. 



262 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



TABLE X. THE QUALITIES WHICH MAKE AN EFFECTIVE 
TEACHER, AND THEIR RELATIVE IMPORTANCE i 



Qualities 



7^ 



Personal equipment. 

{x'. General appearance L^ . . . 

2. Health. „. >-i^. 

Voice '. ... "^ ^^ 

Intellectual capacity .... 



3- 
4- 

5. Initiative and self-reliance . . 

6. Adaptability and resourcefulness 

7. Accuracy 

8. Industry 

9. Enthusiasm a.n.d optimism- 

10. Integrity and sincerity / 

11. Self-control 

Promptness /. y^ 

Tact ....'. Z-^.^ 

Sense and justice /D 






//a? 



12. 

13- 
14. 



II. Social and professional equipment. 
Q, 15. Academic preparation 



I QJ 









III. 



16. Professional preparation .... ':-^ 

17. Grasp of subject matter . . . - . y^ 

18. Understanding of children . . 

19. Interest in the life of the school 

20. Interest in the life of the communitySj 

21. Ability to meet and interest patrons 

22. Interest in live§,of pupils ..... •^yf 

Cooperation and loyalty ^^ 

Professional interestand growth 
Daily preparation . - . . . . 

6. Use of English /"7 

School management. ' , 

27. Care of light, heat, and ventilation . ^ f^ 

28. Neatness of room ?' V 

: : i.ii 



23- 
24. 

25 






29. Care of routine .... 

30. Discipline (governing skill) 



1 See Fourteenth Year Book of the National Society for the Study of 
Education, Pt. II, p. 68. The table reads: General development of the 
pupils ranks first in a list of 45 qualities ; growth of pupils in subject matter 
ranks second, etc. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 263 



TABLE X (Continued) 



Qualities 


Rank 


IV. Technique of teaching. 


..# 


■7 




31. Definiteness and clearness of aim 




ID 


32. Skill in habit formation . . . 


:* 


¥ ' ' ' 










5 


33. Skill in stimulating thought 


'K 










8 


34. Skill in teaching how to study 




7 










7 


35. Skill in questioning .... 




/c 










20 


36. Choice of subject matter . . . 


'. '. i> 












6 


37. Organization of subject matter 


■ ■ t- 












3 


38. Skill and care in assignment . 


::S 












9 


39. Skill in motivating work . . . 












16 


40. Attention to individual needs . 




n 










14 


V. Results. 


'', 














41. Attention and response of the class . j. 












4 


42. Growth of pupils in subject matte 


r. ./. 












2 


43. General development of pupils 


. /. 












I 


44. Stimulation of community . . 


_./ 












23 


45. Moral influence 














21 



important from unimportant qualities. Since, when relatively 
considereci, such items as definiteness and clearness of aim, 
skill in habit formation, skill in stimulating thought, choice 
of subject matter, and attention and response of the class 
all rank high, a teacher who desires a corresponding rank will 
give these qualities considerable attention. On a close examina- 
tion of the table it will be found that qualities relating to 
results and the technic of teaching with few exceptions uni- 
formly rank high in the scale values. 

Before a supervisor can scientifically rate a history teacher 
according to Boyce's qualities of merit, he must devise some 
scheme to view the effects of the teacher's work on the students. 
One may get at this matter concretely from two angles — the 
one on the basis of what the students know and can do, the 
other on the basis of their attitude toward history. The first 
angle involves the whole matter of tests and standards dis- 
cussed in Chapter VIII and the second a personal statement 



264 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

on the part of the pupils as to why they appreciate or fail to 
appreciate history. Both of these angles would furnish con- 
crete data on the qualities of merit ranked so high in Boyce's 
scale of values. 

Since the matter of tests and standards has been considered 
elsewhere, the discussion may pass at once to the second angle 
of the matter under discussion. From data that the writer 
has collected from high-school graduates as to why they failed 
to appreciate history while in high school it appears that the 
teacher is the chief cause. Judged wholly from the effect of 
their teaching on the girls who wrote the following, the two 
teachers in question would fall rather low in the scale of 
efficiency : 

During almost four years I did not appreciate history and I do 
not feel that I was altogether to blame for it. My first half year 
things around me were so new (for it was my first year in high 
school) that it was hard for me to really get down to hard solid 
work. Then the teacher I had didn't understand people of our ages 
and consequently was a little hard on us. He was excitable and 
very inconsistent in marking and every-day recitations. The classes 
were so noisy all the time that one could hardly keep one's mind on 
the work. My mind was not led into the paths which would tend 
to interest me, for in fact it was not guided at all but allowed to 
drift, and gradually the little interest which I had had in history 
from grammar school was blotted out, and by the end of my first 
half year I found all appreciation of history gone. 

Well do I remember that three-thirty history class. Our high- 
school building was very small and we had our history class down 
on the main floor in the little botany room, which was a close, 
stuffy little room. Our history teacher was an elderly man, very 
heavy set, with large flabby cheeks. He had been teaching a great 
many years and had gotten into a rut. He used no devices to 
make the subject interesting ; day after day we recited from the 
text. We had no opportunity for an informal discussion or personal 
opinion. Mr. K. called on us alphabetically and went down the 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 265 

list., After we had been called on we could settle back in our 
chairs. It seems strange that one should not appreciate history 
for the mere reason that one disliked the teacher. This was true. 
He did not try to stir any interest or appreciation of the subject 
whatever. 

The writer has in his possession many statements of high- 
school graduates similar in tone to the foregoing. He also has 
an equal number of statements which give the other side of 
the matter. While it is true that high-school graduates hold 
their teachers responsible for their failure to appreciate history, 
it is equally true that when these same individuals appreciate 
and like their high-school history, their teachers receive due 
credit. That this is the case to some extent at least is evidenced 
by the following statement of a high-school graduate in response 
to the request to write a brief statement on why she liked 
history in the high school : 

I liked American history in the high school for several reasons.. 
One was the enthusiastic, wide-awake, and charming personality of 
my instructor. She inspired me to do my best. When one is 
doing good work, this alone will make the work interesting, en- 
joyable, and profitable. Another reason was the interesting way 
the work was given. We read from our texts and from outside 
references. She did not ask for a report on these, but would ask 
a question which we would have to figure out, putting together 
all we had read, what we knew about it, and any information which 
would bear on the subject. In other words, she threw it into the 
problematic form. We found out what x and y were and gave her 
the solution. She had us also read historical novels, and books on 
the life of men, as Daniel Boone, and then we made as interesting 
a report on it as we could. We were given free rein to develop 
it as we pleased. This was very interesting to me. I never worked 
so hard in my life as I did trying to get interesting and varied 
reports. I had to report on pioneer life of the children. I wrote 
it in novel form with a plot, bringing in the pioneer life, the 
Indians, and some historical events. We had several papers of this 
type to work out, and I enjoyed them all. We also had to keep 



2 66 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

notebooks and most interesting maps and charts. She was full 
of interesting surprises in carrying out the different work. We 
had a mock trial and many other real-life demonstrations and 
objective work. This was great fun and very good for us. She had 
contests on dates, etc., when the boys were pitted against the girls. 
This I think was the most fun of all. She varied the contests : 
sometimes she would give dates and we had to tell everything of 
importance that happened, sometimes she would give results and 
we would enumerate the causes, etc. All in all, my American 
history in the high school, as I look back upon it, was enjoyable, 
interesting, likable, and profitable work. 

If a student likes one field of history and dislikes another, 
the teacher is often held responsible. Judging from the state- 
ments which the writer has collected, the field of history itself 
is not always a sufficiently impelling force in causing young 
people to like or dislike the subject. In no case did the same 
teacher cause pupils to like one field and dislike another, but 
in many cases one field of history was much appreciated under 
one teacher and another field was disliked under a different 
teacher. The following statement is but one of many illus- 
trating this fact : 

I Hked American history in high school because the teacher was 
a very cheerful and easy-going person, but also held enough 
prestige over us to make us realize her position. We had daily 
lessons to prepare from a textbook, but always recited on these 
lessons in quite informal discussions. Any material that we might 
have had from our experiences or from other reading was con- 
sidered worth while as long as it pertained to the lesson. Not 
being held strictly to the words of the text, giving more if able, 
we were interested in reading any article that we came upon. The 
facts seemed true and I liked them because they related to our own 
country. Because they did relate to our own country, its progress 
and development, they seemed worthy of careful study. While I 
appreciated this particular field of history, I did not care about 
ancient history. This field seemed not well founded, because it 
was so old and primitive. The teacher was well versed in her subject, 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 267 

but she was of a very nervous disposition, and this more or 
less affected her work. Her method was the textbook method, and 
she held us strictly to the text. This gave no chance for individual 
reflections and did not encourage research work. Occasionally Greek 
stories were given us as reference work, but the attitude toward 
this was much different than toward the research work done in 
American history. 

High-School History Teachers and their Methods 
as viewed by their students 

No comprehensive study of the high-school history teacher 
from the pupil's point of view has ever been made. To the 
writer's knowledge but one article along this line has been 
published.^ Working along the same lines suggested in this 
article and in some unpublished material in the possession of 
its author, the writer has collected a small amount of data on 
the subject ; not enough, however, on which to base depend- 
able conclusions, but sufficient to indicate how a number of 
history teachers are viewed by those whom they have taught. 

Reference has already been made to Engleman's study 
made on the general subject under consideration here. This, 
it will be recalled, revealed certain mental, personal, and social 
qualities which high-school students admire in their teachers. 
Interesting to relate, most of these qualities appear in the 
papers of high-school graduates when they are asked to write 
especially of their history teachers. As revealed in the one 
hundred and fifty statements that the writer has collected from 
high-school graduates relative to their high-school history- 
teachers and their methods, the following qualities of merit 
are looked upon with much favor: attractive personality, 
broad-mindedness, keen sense of humor, impartiality, fairness, 
kindness, interest in subject, personal interest in students, pleas- 
ing manner, and much vitality. Here is how one girl expressed 
her appreciation of these qualities in her teacher : 

1 Williams, " The History Teacher as viewed by the History Student," 
History Teacher's Magazme, V, 260 ff. 



2 68 ' THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

The teacher I had for medieval and modern history was a 
wonder. She had a reputation of being severe, and she was, but 
in such a way that one did not mind it. Her idea was that we 
were all there to help each other, and she wanted us not to feel 
formal. The result was that we all looked forward to going to her 
class. We had a textbook in which a lesson was assigned every 
day except when we had reference readings in other history books. 
These references were always about the subject we were taking 
up in the textbook. Twice or three times a week we had one- 
word tests, which we wrote in our notebooks. These were collected 
and kept by her. The rows were numbered, and the odd rows took 
the odd questions and the even rows the even questions. These 
tests were given to see if we had read our text or reference. At the 
beginning of the year she showed us how to study to get the most 
out of our lessons and to get only the main points. After these 
httle quizzes she would lecture to us. She might have four points 
that she wanted to bring out, but often we would only finish two, 
because we would become so interested that we would keep asking 
questions, and as she had traveled a great deal and knew her subjects 
so well, she could always answer our questions. In taking up the 
subject of religions, she gave all the good and bad points impar- 
tially. She was very broad-minded and could see the good things in 
every religion. She knew all the doctrines of all the sects, and even 
if she wasn't a member of a certain denomination, she knew the 
doctrines and creed better than some of the students who were 
members. She gave stereopticon lectures and had other pictures, 
and sometimes she had original documents and heirlooms to 
show us. She had a keen sense of humor. Often we laughed 
for ten minutes, and then we would feel more like settling down to 
work. There were only a few dates that she wished us to remember, 
and these were made easy by a little verse or something similar. 
We also had a little verse to help us remember the kings. At 
the end of the semester she gave out a set of questions which 
required quite a bit of reference work to answer. If we answered 
so many of these and got a good mark, we were excused from the 
final. As a result, very few had to take the final examination. 
She said that she could tell pretty well at the end of the first 
month those who were sure to do good work, just by our attitude. 
She was very fair and did her share to help us make up any back 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 269 

work. Her personal appearance was always without a fault. She 
wore quiet tailored clothes and absolutely no jewelry except a plain 
ring and a simple pin in her tie. Everyone in her class admired 
her, and also got a great deal out of the course under her direction. 

Besides revealing certain definite and desirable qualities in 
history teachers, the descriptions by high-school graduates of 
their history teacher and their methods of procedure throw 
much light on some other phases of successful history teaching 
when considered from the standpoint of those being taught. 
For example, a good teacher in the judgment of the pupils 
does not have to be a good-looking individual. The following 
description gives some proof of this fact : 

An accurate description of the teacher who gave me the best 
appreciation and understanding of history will have to be, from 
the standpoint of outward appearances, most uncompHmentary, 
since the first glance at her did not make you feel that she would 
have anything valuable or interesting in store for you. She was 
short and quite fleshy, and there was no sign of grace in any of 
her movements. She was a middle-aged woman, and her hair 
was rather gray, pulled back tightly from her face, and coiled 
into a tiny knot on the top of her head. Her eyes were small, 
but very snappy and full of life, her nose was small, but pugged, 
and her mouth unattractive except in a smile, and then most 
charming. Her whole face smiled, instead of just her mouth, and 
one always felt that he must smile back. However, if on first 
glance your impression of her was not remarkable, you only had 
to sit looking at her for a few moments before you felt how 
charming and fascinating and human she was. With a personality 
such as hers, a thorough knowledge of her subject, and carefully 
planned methods for making the course most valuable, there was 
scarcely anything missing to make the course a success and to give 
the pupils an understanding and a new conception of history. And 
this she certainly did, at least in my case. Her methods were 
simple, not seeming to differ from those employed by many other 
teachers in but one or two respects. When I was in the class, of 
course, I was not looking for "methods," but there are one or 
two things which stand out clearly in my mind that differed entirely 



2 70 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

from methods used by other teachers. In the first place she gave 
us each week a typewritten outUne, which included all the topics 
we were to study for that week. This was in a definite and clear 
form, and beside each large heading were given references in 
several texts which we were given access to, so that we could 
turn immediately to them and find the material we wanted. These 
outlines furnished us definite material for the preparation of the 
daily lesson, and seemed to put into a compact form the essential 
topics, and helped fix them in mind. I believe also that her idea 
of not confining the reading to one text was an especially good 
one, and one not employed by the majority of history teachers. 
There were occasional outside references, but usually one text was 
used in the preparation of the daily lesson. This is apt to be 
narrowing, and become a bore to the pupil, if the text is not 
unusually good. The outlines were brought to class each day 
and used somewhat as guides for our discussions, although we were 
never obliged to adhere strictly to them. The recitations were 
carried on in the form of informal discussions, sometimes between 
teacher and pupil, sometimes between pupils, and were very free 
and always remarkably interesting. By clever questions and chal- 
lenges she led one on until he was all stirred up over a question. 
You never felt as if she was going to put down in her book just 
what your answer was worth, for she seldom asked a question 
which demanded a direct answer, but rather put it into argumenta- 
tive form. You always knew that she appreciated any common sense 
revealed or individual thinking on your part, even though the text 
did not state the same facts. I beheve that these outlines and our 
informal discussions, combined with her knowledge of United 
States history and her enthusiasm displayed in the classroom, 
were all methods or factors which gave me a better understanding 
and appreciation of history in general. 

Some other encouraging revelations contained in the accounts 
in the writer's possession are : ( i ) A teacher does not have to 
be young to make his students appreciate history. (2) A 
history teacher does not have to be easy to be popular. 
(3) The lecture system can be made a success in high-school 
history teaching. (4) Good history teaching does not have to be 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 271 

spectacular. (5) The power to make the fact a living reality 
is a great asset to a history teacher. (6) Students enjoy mak- 
ing maps, reading in other books, keeping notebooks, writing 
papers, and similar exercises. The following statements illus- 
trate almost all these points : 

The teacher who helped me most to an appreciation of history 
was an elderly woman with white hair and a dignified bearing. 
When a Freshman this lady had terrified me, and it was with much 
trepidation that I entered her room for class work. She was 
assistant principal of the high school, and so was necessarily stern 
at times. I thought she was a sort of an ogre, and the first 
time I remember trying to recite for her I started to name as 
many presidents as I could, and as nearly in order as possible. 
I started with Washington, named Adams and a few others, and 
ended up by naming Washington over again. She had me so 
frightened that I could not think. However, when I finished, she 
looked up and smiled — everybody else laughed excepting myself. 
She seemed to know that I was frightened for she put her glasses 
down a little way on her nose, peered out over them at me, smiled 

and said, "How do you spell your first name, Miss ?" 

I was thunderstruck. What was she going to do? But I did 
manage to say "V-i-o-l-e-t." She said, "I am glad you don't spell 
it V-i-o-l-e-t-t-e ; it would lessen my opinion of you." Then she 
chatted on a little about names. Of course, everybody wondered 
what she was doing. She wasn't doing a thing, but making us 
"at home," but we didn't know it then. Soon she started the 
history study again, and we forgot about the little discussion for 
the time. That afternoon I was walking down the hall. She 
put out her arm, a clean, stiffly starched arm it was too, and 
caught my arm. To this day I cannot tell what she said to me, but 
I do know that ever after I idolized the dignified, orderly woman. 
She admired a boy who sold papers or worked in some other way, 
and said so. Also she admired a girl who helped her mother, she 
said that too, and although her lessons did wander from the 
straight and narrow path of just history at times, yet she got as 
good results as any of the other teachers and, besides, made the 
subject pleasant for us. 



2 72 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

The history teacher v.'ho helped me most to an appreciation and 
understanding of history had a pleasing personality which seemed 
to be carried through the subject of history itself. She was not what 
one would call good looking, but had an attractive way. She was 
for the most part of an even temper, but could be stern if 
necessary. Her way of taking up history was not that of the 
old type, but was a most interesting way. She went over much 
of the history in a clear way. She gave us topics on which to 
take notes in an orderly fashion and so that they could be re- 
membered. Although the textbook was studied, the reading in 
other books was one of the pleasant features of this course. 
Miss L. had us prepare notebooks and maps. What made the 
subject of most pleasure to the class was the informal way in 
which the recitation was carried on. Informal discussions directed 
by Miss L. did much to make the history clear. Another device 
she used was the giving of different current topics by various 
members of the class. Guided by this wide-awake teacher we 
were able to keep in touch with the outside world as well as with 
the past history. Miss L. was a rather slight young person of 
medium height with light hair and blue eyes. She wore her hair 
parted in the middle and slightly rolled on both sides and was 
always very neat and attractive to look upon. Her light blue eyes 
were generally calm, but could snap and flash when she became ex- 
cited. Miss L. talked in a quiet even tone, but sometimes when care- 
less or unruly boys disturbed the class her tones could be sharp and 
clear cut to make the offender realize his misdemeanor. She was 
well liked by both fellow teachers and her students. At all 
class parties and functions it was always Miss L. whom the boys 
and girls unanimously chose as chaperon. This popularity among 
the students was not because Miss L. was "easy" in classes. She 
was most fair in all examinations and classes and showed no favorit- 
ism or partiality. Her popularity was due, I think, to her pleasing 
personality, her friendliness and kindness to everyone, and her 
desire to help wherever and whenever she could. 



The teacher who helped me most to an appreciation of history 
was the young lady who taught history and civics in the high 
school. She was very ambitious and full of life. She had a 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 273 

pleasing manner and a sense of humor. She made you feel aL 
interest in the subject because of her own interest in it and the 
personal interest which she seemed to take in each pupil. She 
lectured on the different topics and gave us some outside reading to 
do. We had a notebook in which we kept notes on the lectures and 
reports. We prepared maps to illustrate the geographical connections 
of some things. Special topics were assigned to each student to re- 
port upon to the class. These seemed especially to interest the class. 
We had a textbook, but it was so condensed that it was almost an out- 
line, and all elaboration of the facts had to be obtained from other 
sources. This book, however, gave us the order of progression, and mate- 
rial gleaned from other sources seemed more profitable and interesting. 

The teacher who helped me most in acquiring an appreciation 
of history was a woman who herself was thoroughly alive to the 
subject. She had studied history a great many years and knew 
a great deal about it. Consequently she made the class very 
much interested in it, and her method of work was, I suppose, 
very much like others. We read a certain number of pages, 
talked them over in class, read outside references, and had a general 
discussion. The devices which she used were discussions upon out- 
side readings ; mapping out the different routes of armies ; coloring 
printed maps to show gains of territory or losses of it ; arguments 
or debates upon certain points such as who was the best leader 
of a certain army and why, which required outside reading ; and 
various articles and pictures brought in by the teacher. All of these 
devices helped to bring the class to a greater appreciation of the 
subject, and I'm sure everyone got something worth while out of 
the course, whether he further studied history or not. 

The history teacher who helped me to an appreciation and under- 
standing of history was a man who was thoroughly absorbed in 
his subject. When we studied historical characters, he always had 
a rich fund of details (not given in our textbook) to make the 
impression of the character lasting. His admiration of some his- 
torical people was very great, as frequently expressed by such 
hearty exclamations as "Oh, how I would like to have known the 
man ! " The enthusiasm, admiration, and reverence with which he 
treated biographies of great men made them living people to his 
pupils. I liked his treatment of events — we were made to see 



2 74 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

their relationship to all phases of life. The petty details of war 
were omitted, only such parts as touched significant points or prob- 
lems were studied. We were led to criticize, revise, question, and 
study out for ourselves important topics. The devices which this 
instructor used to help us to grow in power to understand and 
appreciate history were varied. Those which best helped me were 
his vivid lectures and his references to other books. Our textbook 
merely gave a broad general study of our subject, the enrichment 
being left to reference books. The maps which we made twice a 
week fixed facts clearly and definitely. We used notebooks in 
which we wrote in topical order the points obtained from reference 
reading, textbooks, and lectures. 

The teacher who helped me most to an appreciation and under^ 
standing of history had pleasing manners ; was broad-minded, well 
informed, interested in the subject and in the children, fair, and 
just, and expected the children to do the right thing. I think 
his method was a combination of methods : textbook, problematic, 
topical, lecture, developmental. The assignment was good ; interest 
was aroused in the work to be done. Sometimes the assignment 
was in the form of questions that had to be answered. Reading 
in addition to the textbook was given, special topics were often 
given, and these were to be worked up and reported to the class. 
Maps were made to help in understanding and organizing material. 
Outlines were worked out, not merely copied and learned. Some- 
times the teacher lectured, at other times lectures would be given 
on special topics by the pupils. There was an attempt to correlate 
history with other work. The recitation was not a time for mere 
memory work but a -time for clearing up points and for getting 
new views of things. 

A history teacher who wishes to help his students to an ap- 
preciation and an understanding of history can well afford 
occasionally to examine himself in the light of the foregoing 
descriptions. He will find in them an ideal worthy of attain- 
ment, a standard deserving of the efforts of any teacher to 
attempt to measure up to, and an indication that good history 
teachers are much appreciated by their students. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 275 

The History Teacher's Professional Library^ 

The three chief ways for a history teacher to keep abreast 
of the new movements in the teaching phase of his subject 
are ( i ) to attend professional gatherings now and then ; 
(2) to spend an occasional summer in studying the problems 
relative to the teaching of history in a school which offers 
courses along this line; and (3) to read books, magazines, 
and reports concerning history and the teaching of history in 
the high school and elsewhere. No one of these is complete 
within itself. To attain the most worth-while results a teacher 
must supplement any one of them with the other two. This, 
however, is an ideal which all will not be able to attain. 
Because of the fact that most teachers are forced to adapt 
their ambitions along the line of professional growth to a 
salary which is too often but little above a living wage, their 
attendance at professional gatherings and summer schools 
must be very sporadic. On account of this fact there is left 
but one avenue through which to attain professional better- 
ment. This is number three above, which does not seem 
entirely beyond the financial reach of the lowest salaried 
teacher. Generally speaking, if the money spent in attending 
two or three professional gatherings or one summer session 
were put in books on the teaching of history, it would be 
sufficient to supply one with all the material of any great 
value along this line. When a professional history library 
has once been brought up to date the amount required to 
keep it thus is very insignificant. A beginning teacher should 
supply himself at his earliest opportunity with the worth- 
while literature on the teaching of his subject. This done 
early in his career it will be possible for him subsequently to 
keep up to date in this matter and at the same time occasion- 
ally to attend a professional gathering or a summer school. 

1 This section aims to be practical rather than complete. It supplements 
the additional reading matter listed at the end of each chapter. 



2 76 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Suppose a history teacher desires to purchase, as he is able, 
a select library on the professional phase of his subject, what 
ought he to include in his list? In terms of the types of 
material a working library on the teaching of history should 
include (i) general discussions of the subject of history, 
its purposes, processes, etc.; (2) books treating the numerous 
teaching phases of the subject; (3) reports of committees; 
and (4) outlines and syllabuses. A careful selection would limit 
the number of books in the first of these classes to five, all 
of rather recent publication, the oldest being J. W. Allen's 
The Place of History in Education} Three years after Allen's 
book. The New History by Professor James Harvey Robinson 
appeared,^ which was followed three years later by The 
Purpose of History, by Professor T. J. E, Woodbridge,^ and 
Dean Mathews's The Spiritual Interpretation of History} 
The most recent of these general discussions is Teggart's 
The Processes of History} Briefly considering these titles in 
reverse order, it should be said of Professor Teggart's little 
volume that it contains interesting considerations of the geo- 
graphical and the human factors in history. The entire 
discussion is an attempt "to do for human history what 
biologists are engaged in doing for the history of other forms 
of life." It is hesLvy reading and contains little that will 
interest a beginner. The Spiritual Interpretation of History 
is the outcome of six lectures delivered by the author at 
Harvard University in the fall of 19 16. The first two lectures 
treat of the limits within which the spiritual interpretation 
of history is possible, and the spiritual tendencies in history 
as a whole ; and the last four with such general subjects as 
the substitution of moral for physical control, the growing 
recognition of the worth of the individual, the transformation 

1 William Blackwood and Sons, London, 1909. 

2 The Macmillan Company, 191 2. 

^ Columbia University Press, 191 6. 
* Harvard University Press, 19 16. 
5 Yale University Press, 1918. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 277 

of right into justice, and the spiritual opportunity in a period 
of reconstruction. Professor Woodbridge's book, like Dean 
Mathews's, is the result of a series of lectures, in this case 
three, delivered at the University of North Carolina in the 
spring of 1916. The subjects of these lectures are "From 
History to Philosophy," "The Pluralism of History," and 
"The Continuity of History," Philosophically inclined indi- 
viduals will be interested in what Professor Woodbridge says 
on these subjects. A book that has been widely read is 
Professor Robinson's The New History. For a popular treat- 
ment of the newer tendencies in writing and interpreting 
history it probably has no equal. The chapters on "The 
New History," "The New Allies of History," and "History 
for the Common Man" are especially illuminating and will be 
read with interest by a neophyte in the field of history teach- 
ing. Allen's The Place of History in Education, the oldest of 
the books in this group, deals with such subjects as history 
as a science, the educational value of history, and the point 
of view in history. The work as a whole is interesting as 
well as easy reading. 

Of the titles comprising the second class of books mentioned 
above there are probably nine that should be mentioned in a 
limited list. Chronologically considered, the first of these is 
a book edited by G. Stanley Hall.^ It consists of collections 
of essays by a number of scholars and for the present time 
has historical rather than practical value. A similar state- 
ment can be made of B. A. Hinsdale's book, which appeared 
a decade after the one edited by Hall.^ The fact, however, 
that Hinsdale's volume is yet on the market would seem to 
indicate that it is still used by some teachers. Inasmuch as 
the book contains considerable material of a general nature, 
such as methods of teaching, organization of facts, etc., one 
might expect sustained rather than temporary interest in it. 

1 Methods of Teaching History. D. C. Heath & Co., 1883. , 

2 How to Study and Teach History. D. Appleton and Company, 1893. 



2 78 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

Two other books which seem to have more historical than 
practical value are those by W. H. Mace^ and H. E. Bourne.^ 
In his first edition Mace presented a theory of organizing 
history which he illustrated with the history of the United 
States. The 19 14 edition kept all the old material and added 
enough new to place it almost in the class with recent publica- 
tions of a similar character. Bourne's book is in reality the 
pioneer in the field of teaching history in the elementary and 
secondary schools. While half of his discussion is devoted 
to an out-of-date organization of high-school history, the 
subjects considered in the other half are those yet in the 
foreground of the thought of those most interested in better 
history teaching on all levels of instruction. 

The five remaining books in group two have been published 
since 19 10. In the order of their appearance they are 
Studies in the Teaching of History by M. W. Keatinge,^ The 
Teaching of History by E. C. Hartwell/ How to Teach 
American History by J. W. Wayland,'^ The Teaching of 
History in Elementary and Secondary Schools by Henry John- 
son/' and History in the Elementary School by C. N. Kendall 
and F. E. Stryker." Since these five volumes contain the most 
recent discussions of history and the teaching of history in 
the elementary and secondary schools, they will of necessity 
be the first books to be considered by a teacher, a librarian, or 
a high-school principal in purchasing an up-to-date professional 
history library.^ 

1 Method in History. Rand McNally & Co., 1S97, 1914. 

2 The Teaching of History and Civics. Longmans, Green, & Co., 1902, 1910. 

3 Adam & Charles Black, London, 1910. 
* Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913. 

5 The Macmillan Company, 191 4. 

6 The Macmillan Company, 191 5. 

■^ Houghton Mifflin Company, 1918. 

8 Two other books on special phases of history teaching might be men- 
tioned in this connection. They are C. O. Davis, A Guide to Methods 
and Obsei-vation in History, Rand, McNally & Co., 1914; and Mabel 
Simpson, Supervised Study ?« History, The Macmillan Company, 1918. 



THE HIGH- SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 279 

Since 1893 there have appeared in the field of history the 
reports of five committees. A knowledge of each of these is 
necessary to an adequate understanding of the stages through 
which the present course of study in the elementary and 
secondary schools have gone. Chronologically considered, the 
first of the five is the report to the famous Committee of Ten^ 
of the subcommittee on "History, Civil Government, .and 
Political Economy," in which one finds the beginning of a 
great deal that now exists in elementary and secondary his- 
tory. Soon after the appearance of the Committee of Ten's 
report the American Historical Association became interested 
in the subject of history in elementary and secondary schools. 
As a result of this interest there appeared in 1898, 1908, and 
191 1 the reports of three committees^ appointed by this 
association. Inasmuch as the report of the Committee of 
Five is based on a partial revision of the report of the Com- 
mittee of Seven, the two should be considered conjointly. 
Some things relating to the teaching of history have never 
been said better than these committees said them. Further- 
more, when one includes the report of the Committee of Eight, 
it is the whole truth to say that most of the history taught 
in the secondary schools for fifteen years following 1900 and 
in the elementary schools for ten years following 1908 was 
that recommended by these committees. Hence the neces- 
sity for knowing the contents of these reports, if one desires 
a historical background of the present-day condition of history 
in these schools. To date, the reports under discussion end 
where they began, with the National Education Association. 
In 191 6, through one of its committees, this association issued 
a report on The Social Studies in Secondary Education.^ 
Since this report leaped into favor immediately after its 
publication, and since the program proposed therein will be 

1 American Book Company, 1894. 

2 The Committees of Seven, Eight, and Five. The Macmillan Company 
published the first and the last, and Scribner the other one. 

2 Bulletin (191 6) No. 28. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 



2 8o THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

the one at which most of the attacks of the future are likely 
to be directed, it becomes almost a professional crime for a 
history teacher to be ignorant of its contents. 

The outlines and syllabuses which are worth a history teacher s 
consideration may be classified into (i) those covering the 
entire field of high-school history, and (2) those relating to 
special fields. In the first group there are three, two of 
immediate and one of remote value. The reader will recall 
the fact that the Committee of Seven made no attempt to 
outline in any detail the fields of history which are recom- 
mended for the high school. This detailed work was left to a 
committee of the New England History Teachers' Association. 
The report of this committee^ was published in 190 1. It was 
then and still remains one of the most elaborate history 
syllabuses for secondary schools in existence. For those who 
teach the traditional four-year high-school course consisting 
of ancient, medieval and modern, English, and American 
history, the syllabus still has much value. 

There are two syllabuses issued by the state departments of 
public instruction which deserve a circulation beyond the bound- 
aries of the states issuing them.- Neither of these syllabuses 
conforms strictly to the fields proposed by the Committee of 
Seven. The chief variation from this report in both of them 
is in the field of European history, in which they adhere more 
to the report of the Committee on Social Studies, for which 
reason the}^ are valuable to the teacher who desires to reorganize 
the field of European history in conformance with the ideas 
expressed in the report of this latter committee. 

In the field of ancient history there are but few outlines and 
syllabuses which are of any great value. In fact, the number 
of such aids seems to be limited to three. Of these Knowlton's 

^ A History Syllabus fo7- Secondary Schools. D. C. Heath & Co. 

2 The Teachmg of Social Studies including History, Department of Public 
Instruction, Trenton, N. J., 1916; and Syllabtis for Secofida^y Schools — 
History and Civics, prepared by the University of the State of New York ; 
reprinted and published by New York Education Co., Albany, N.Y. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 281 

Illustrated Topics in Ancient History is by far the most useful.^ 
The introductory material in Armstrong's Syllabus and Note- 
book for Ancient History is of considerable value.^ Since 
neither of these aids is expensive, it would be well for a beginner 
to have access to both of them. The other syllabus in the latter 
half of this field is Botsford's, which appeared in 1915.^ While 
the teacher will not find in this work an outline which he can 
actually use in his classes, he will secure from a careful perusal 
of its contents a multitude of suggestions which he can apply 
in making such an outline. Furthermore, if the teacher desires 
a guide to his own reading in the field, he will find it in Bots- 
ford's little publication. 

Serviceable syllabuses and outlines are a little more plentiful 
in medieval and modern European history than in ancient his- 
tory. The latest ones to appear are A Syllabus oj European 
History^ and Syllabus for a Course in Early European History.^ 
While the first of these is designed to accompany a particular 
text in the field, it may, however, serve as a useful guide to 
follow in using any textbook. Mr. Hoskins does not base his 
work on any single text, but makes constant reference to a 
number in the field of ancient and medieval history. A much 
older syllabus than the two foregoing is Trenholme's,*' which, 
like Williams's, is largely based on a single text, Robinson's 
History oj Western Europe. In spite of the many changes 
which have occurred since 1907 in the traditional high-school 
course in European history, Trenholme's work is still of con- 
siderable value. In the medieval field alone, Armstrong has a 
syllabus similar to his Syllabus and Notebook for Ancient 
History '^ of which mention has already been made. The general 

1 McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia, 1913. 

2 Atkinson, Mentzer & Co., 1918. 

3 A Syllabus of Rommt History. The Macmillan Company. 

4 Williams. American Book Company, 1918. 

5 Hoskins. The Historical PubHshing Co., Topeka, Kansas, 1919. 

6 A Syllables for the History of Western Europe. Ginn and Company, 1917. 
■^ A Syllabus and Notebook for Medieval History. Atkinson, Mentzer & 

Co., 1917. 



282 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

plan of these two works is the same ; in fact, they contain 
a very considerable amount of exactly the same material. In 
the field of strictly modern history there is a syllabus by 
Professor Hayes.^ Since this work is so modem in its selection of 
topics, it should be of great assistance to those interested in a 
new selection of topics in modern history. Two valuable aids in 
a restricted portion of the field are Harding's topical outlines 
of the World War and its preliminaries.- Inasmuch as after 
the war reorganization of high-school history will remain for 
some time an important problem, these outlines should be of 
considerable assistance to teachers of modern history. 

In the field of English history proper Trenholme's An Outline 
of English History,^ based on Cheyney's Short History of Eng- 
land, stands almost alone. Closely akin to it in the American 
field is an Outline of American History for Use in High Schools.^ 
In spite of the fact that this outline is based on a single text, 
it has value regardless of the textbook used. McKinley's Illus- 
trated Topics in American History^ is similar in plan to Knowl- 
ton's Illustrated Topics in Ancient History. The value of both 
of these aids lies in the vast amount of varied material they 
contain. A Syllabus of American History by R. L. Schuyler*^ 
contains valuable suggestions on a topical organization of the 
field of American history. To this brief list one other should be 
added. Taylor's Outlines of American Industrial History"^ is a 
work of pronounced value to a high-school history teacher who 
desires to emphasize industrial life and activities. 

In concluding this part of the discussion a few remarks on 
the ways and means of keeping up to the minute on material 

1 A Syllabtis of Mode?'ii History. Columbia University Press, 1913. 
^ These outlines may be secured in a convenient form in Collected 
Materials for the Study of the War. McKinley Publishing Co., 1918. 
^ Ginn and Company, 1918. 
■* Jonas Viles. Ginn and Company, 191 5. 
^ McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia, 191 2. 
'" Columbia University Press, 191 5. 
"' Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, 19 15. 



THE HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHER 283 

relating to the subject one teaches seem quite apropos. Gen- 
erally speaking, there are two practical and relatively inex- 
pensive ways of doing this. One of these is to rely on the j 
Library of Congress. For instance, if a history teacher should jk 
send one dollar to the Library of Congress, Card Section, with f'/! 
specifications as to the exact kind of information desired, the Ij! 
information would come periodically in the form of cards such ■;/ 
as one finds in the catalogue of any library. This scheme 7 
assures one of information on all copyrighted material. An- 
other way is for one to rely on magazines such as The His- 
torical Outlook^ and The School Review.^ Each issue of the 
former of these contains a classified list of books on history 
and government published in the United States a month or so 
before the issue appears. In The School Review there has 
appeared once a year since 19 17 a review of the literature 
relative to history and the teaching of history which appeared 
during the time covered by the article. These reviews cover 
the magazine articles as well as books, for which reason they 
make an excellent supplement to the information furnished by 
the Library of Congress and that contained in The Historical 
Outlook. If one pursues no other than these three ways of 
keeping up to date on the matter of history and the teaching 
of history in junior and senior high schools, one would have 
little cause to worry over the possible existence of unknown 
material of any great value. 

ADDITIONAL READING MATTER 

Bird, Grace E. " Pupils' Estimates of Teachers," Journal of Educational 
Psychology, VIII (1917), 35 ff. 

Book, W. F. "The High School Teacher from the Pupil's Point of 
View," Pedagogical Seminary, XII (1905), 239 ff. 

BoYCE, A. C. "Qualities of Merit in Secondary School Teachers," Jour- 
nal of Educational Psychology, III (1912), 144 ff. 

1 McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 

2 School of Education, The University of Chicago. 



2 84 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 

CoLviN, S. S. "Problems of the Novice in Teaching," Appendix A, in 

An Introduction to High School Teaching. The Macmillan Company^ 

1917. 
Dawson, Edgar, "Preparation of the High School Teacher of History," 

History Teacher's Magazine, H (1911), 197 ff.; "Certification of 

High School Teachers of History," History Teacher's Magazine, III 

(1912), 200 ff. 
Edwards, H. W. "Preparation of the High School History Teacher," 

History Teacher's Magazine, H (1910), 5 ff. 
Hinsdale, B. A. "The Teacher's Qualifications," chap, xii in How to 

Study and Teach History. D. Appleton & Company, 1893, 1908. 
Keatinge, M. W. "The Teacher of History," chap xi in Studies in 

the Teaching of History. Adam & Charles Black, London, 1913. 
Knight, G. W. "What the Teacher of American History should Do and 

Be," School Review, X (1902), 208 ff. 
Lewis, E. S. " The Teaching of History in -Maine," History Teacher's 

Magazine, V (1914), 159 ff. 
Moses, Cleda Virginia. "Why High School Teachers Fail," School and 

Home Education, XXXHI (1914), 166 ff. 
Paxson, F. L. " Certification of High School Teachers of History," 

History Teacher's Magazine, IV (1913), 169 ff. 
Trenholme, N. M. "Preparation for the High School Teacher of His- 
tory," Mississippi Valley Historical Association Proceedings, TV 

(1910-1911), 284 ff. 
Wayland, J. W. "The Teacher's Need to Know Himself," chap, xxx 

in How to Teach American History. The Macmillan Company, 1914. 
Williams, O. H. "The History Teachers as viewed by the History 

Student," History Teacher's Magazine, V (1914), 260 ff. 



INDEX 



Abbreviations, use of, ii8 

Acquisition as a goal in permanent 
notebook keeping, 149 

Activity, teacher-pupil, 21, 24 ff. 

Adaptation, 8 f ., 29 

Adequate tests, 25; characteristics 
of, 163; diagnostic value of, 174 

Agriculture, 73 ; history of, loi 

Aims, of collateral reading, 176 ff.; 
common to all recitations, 10; 
controlling, in a history recitation, 
9ff. ; listed by Koos, 216; what 
students should do to attain, 
178 

Algebra, 94, 164, 258 

Allen, The Place of History in 
Education, 276 

American Historical Association, 
279 

American history, 11, 71, 74, 75, 
86, 88, 98, 99, loi, 102, 103, 105, 
136, 14s, 152, 163, 170, 183, 190, 
217, 219, 224, 225, 226, 265, 266; 
general method of teaching, in 
junior high school, 99 f . ; organi- 
zation of, for teaching purposes, 
218 

American Revolution, 9, 10, 19, 97, 
98 

Analyses, text, 148 

Ancient history, 106, 108, 166, 190, 
280; general method of pro- 
cedure in teaching, 106 ff. 

Approach, chronological, 103 ; coun- 
ter-chronological, 103 

Arithmetic, 11, loi, 164, 258 

Armstrong: Syllabus and Notebook 
for Ancient History, 281 ; Sylla- 
bus and Notebook for Medieval 
History, 281 

Assignment, 6, 13, 27, 31 

Assignment of the new lesson, 14, 
iSf., 29; general rules to follow 
in making, 16; how to make, 15; 



list of things the teacher might 
do, 16; when to make, 15 

Association : American Historical, 
279; Middle States and Mary- 
land History Teachers', 97 f.; 
Mississippi Valley Historical, 247 ; 
252; National Education, 279; 
New England History Teachers', 
280 

Astronomy, 258 

Atlases, 182, 185 

Attainments, 215 f.; standards of, 

4, 5 
Attention must be kept up, 27 
Austria-Hungary, 108 
Autocracy, 108 

Balkan States, 108 

Bancroft, George, 92 

Barnard, A. F., cited, 14 f . 

Barr, A. S., Diagnostic Tests in 
American History, 167 n., 174 n. 

Berard,jy iifory of the United States, 
quoted, 55 

Betts, The Recitatiott, cited, 2 

Bibliographies, 121, 149 

Biographical sketches, 148, 149 

Biography, 178, 182, 184 

Bird, Grace E., quoted, 255 

Blackboard reproduction, 133, 134 

Blackboard work, 133, 134; assign- 
ment of, 14 

Bobbitt, J. F., quoted, 12 ; What the 
Schools Teach and Might Teach, 
102 

Boston Tea Party, 9, 90 

Botany, 257, 258 

Bourne, H. E., The Teaching of 
History and Civics, 278 

Boyce, A. C, Methods for Measur- 
ing Teachers' Efficiency, 261 

Breasted, J. H., Ancient Times, 133 

Briefs, 119, 121, 148; training in 
making, ii9f. 



Z85 



286 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



Buckingham, B. R., cited, 171 n. 
Buellesfield, Henry, cited, 260 
Bulletin-board, 213 
Bunker Hill, 9 
Business law, 258 

Cartoons, 148, 213 

" Certification of High-School 
Teachers of History," 250 

Civics, 152, 258 

Civil War, 19, Si 

Charlemagne, crowning of, 126 f. 

Charts, 2, 5, 7, 12, 13, 45, 46, 52, 
148; to use, 238 ff.; use of, 6 

Chemistry, 2, 150, 258 

Cheyney, E. P., Short History of 
England, 282 

Chronicles, 178 

Chronological outline, 148 

Church, H. V., quoted, 136 f. 

Class discussions as a way of test- 
ing collateral reading, 192 f. 

Classroom equipment, 12 

Clay, Henry, 200-word statement 
concerning, 225 

Clearness, 29; how to attain, 8; 
need of, 7 ; quality of, 7 f . 

Clippings, 213; magazine, 148; 
newspaper, 148 

Coherence, 21; principle of, 5, 7, 
27, 29 

Collateral reading, 27, 43 ; abstracts 
of, 121; amount of, to be re- 
quired in each course, 189 f.; 
how to assign, 190 ff.; how to 
check, 191 ff.; guiding principles 
to use in selecting, 180 ff.; kinds 
optional, 187 ff.; kinds required, 
187 f.; management of, 187 ff.; so- 
called valid objections to, 178 ff.; 
standards to apply to each book, 
180 f.; what students must do to 
attain worth-while ends, 178; 
valid aims or purposes of, 
176 ff. 

College Entrance Examination 
Board, 155, 156, 160, 161 

College lecture method, adaptation 
of, to high-school students, 51 

Colonial life, an outline of, in de- 
tail, 238 ff. 

Commerce and industry, 72 



Commercial development, 74 

Committee, resolution regarding 
topical method, 71 

Committee of Eight, 279 

Committee of Seven, 98; cited, 215, 
279, 280 

Committee on Social Studies, 280 

Committee of Ten, 70, 279 

Comparative statements, 121 

Comparisons, 148 

Compromise of 1850, 225 

Concentration as a factor in his- 
tory study, 35 

Concord, 9 

Conditions necessary to a good his- 
tory recitation, 2 ff. 

Constitution, ratification of, 100 

Constitutional government, 109 

Constitutional growth, 72 

Correlation of history and English, 

13s f. i 

Counter-chronological method of 
approach, loi 

Crusades, 19 

Current events: determining topics 
to study, 202 f., 204; difficulties 
and precautions, 211 ff.; maga- 
zine to use, 208 ff.; place to 
teach and time to devote to, 
202 ; possible methods of pro- 
cedure (committee, 203 f.; his- 
torical, 205 f . ; informal, 206 ; 
notebook, 206; report, 205; re- 
ports-on-assigned-topics, 207 f.; 
textbook, 207) ; teaching, in con- 
nection with history, 199 f.; 
value of, 200 f . 

Curriculum, 24 ; place of history in, 
252 

Dartmouth College, 161 
/Dates-events, 4, 11; how to deter- 
mine a list of, 222 ; how to use a 
list of, 223 ; to know and remem- 
ber, 222 ff. 

Davis, C. O., A Guide to Methods 
and Observation in History, 278 n. 

Davis, S. B., Exercises in United 
States History, 170 f. 

Declaration of Independence, 82 

Demarcation line of 1763, 90 

Democracy, 108 



INDEX 



287 



Department, English, 134, 13S, 137, 

188 
Diagrams, 2, 7, 14, 27, 40, 45, 46, 

133, 148 
Diaries, 182, 184; imaginary, 121; 

example of imaginary, 122 ff. 
Dictations, special, 148 
Digest, 118, 194 
Direct quotation, training in taking, 

120 
Directions to pupils for the study 

of history (Rickard's list), 39 
Directions and rules for studying 

history, 36 ff. ; in Mason City, 

Iowa, high school, 36 f. 
Discovery and exploration, story of 

the period of, 226 ff. 
Distractions, created by the teacher, 

3; freedom from, 2, 29 
Domestic science, 2, 258 
Drake, Sir Francis, 226, 231 
Drawings, 148, 258; use of, 6 
Drill as an aim in a recitation, 11 

Ecclesiastical interference, 90 

Economic theory and reform, 109 

Economics, 152, 258 

Editorials, imaginary, 121; example 
of, 127 ff. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 82 

England, 108 ; her commercial policy 
toward the colonies, 9 

Engleman, J. O., quoted, 256 

English, 116, 124, 125, 126, 134, 
208, 259; Church, on solution of 
the problem, 136 f . ; Hobson, 
Elsie, on solution of the problem, 
135 f . ; other proposed solutions, 
135 ff.; problem of, in written 
work in history, 134 ff. 

English department. See Depart- 
ment 

English history. See History 

English literature, 136 

Enthusiasm on part of teacher, 3 

Erie Canal, 6 

Europe, 109 

European history. See History 

Evolution, doctrine of, 109 

Examination. See History exami- 
nation 

Exercises, 238 ff. 



Expression as a goal in permanent 
notebook keeping, 149 

"f." and "ff.," meaning and use of, 
142 

Fairy tales, 178 

Final examination, exemption from, 
1 59 f- 

Fling, F. M., Source Problems on 
the French Revolution, cited, 81 

Fling, F. M., and Caldwell, H. W., 
Studies in European and Amer- 
ican History, quoted, 77, 78, 79 

Floor talks, 14, 40 

Footnote references, the technic of 
making, 142 ff. 

Force, 29; quality of, 7, 8 

Foreign relations, 72, 74 

Forms of the history recitation, 26 f. 

Foster, Herbert, quoted, 161 

France, 108 

French and Indian Wars, 17, 100 

French Revolution, 19, 51, 191 

Funnel method, 50 

Garth, T. R., cited, 204 

Gathany, J. M., quoted, 201 ; cited, 

206, 207, 208 
Geography, 253, 258 
German, 94, 257, 258 
Germany, 108 

Gold, H. H., cited, 80, 147 .' 
Goodrich, C. A., History of the 

United States, quoted, 53 
Gradation, problem of, 97 
Graduates, high-school, why they 

fail to appreciate history, 264 f . ; 

why they like history, 265 ff. 
Graphs, 14, 46, 100, 148 
Greek history. See History 
Guidance outline, 118; an example 

of, 62 

Hall, G. Stanley, Methods of Teach- 
ing History, 277 

Harding, S. B., .4 Teacher's Manual, 
etc., quoted, 220 

Harlan, C. L., Test of Information 
in American History, 167, 169 

Harrison, Benjamin, identified, 226 

Hart, A. B., Studies in American 
Education, cited, 69; quoted, 70 



288 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



Hartwell, E. C, The Teaching of 
History, 278 

Hayes, A Syllabus of Modern His- 
tory, 282 

Herodotus, 79 

High-school history, supervised 
study in, 42 ff. 

High-school history instruction, ob- 
jection to use of lecture method 
in, 50 

High-school history teacher. See 
History teacher 

High-school history teaching, what 
it means, 10 f . 

High-school students, adaptation of 
college lecture method to, 51; 
descriptions of history teachers, 
3f., 264 ff. 

Hinsdale, B. A., Hoiv to Study and 
Teach History, 277 

Historical fiction, 182, 185, 192; 
how to check when read, 196 

Historical notes, use to be made 
of, 118 

Historical note-taking. See Note- 
taking 

Historical novels, 178 

Historical Outlook, 283 • 

Historical sense, 80 

History: American, 11, 71, 74, 75, 
86, 98, 99, loi, 102, 103, 105, 136, 
14s, 152, 163, 170, 183, 190, 217, 
219, 224, 225, 226, 265, 266; 
ancient, 106, 108, 166, 190, 280; 
directions to pupils for the study 
of, 39 f.; English, 124, 136, 152, 
190; European, 73, 74, 98, loi, 
107, 185, 251, 280, 281; Greek, 
I03) 137) iSi ;. medieval, 107, 108, 
190; modern, 107, 108, 152, 190; 
multiplication tables of, 11; 
Roman, 106, 124; teaching pupils 
to study, 31 ff. 

History examination, adverse criti- 
cism of, 155; attempt to make 
it other than a mere test of 
memory, 157 f.; justification of, 
iSS; meaning of, 154 f.; should 
test ability to do and to reason, 
157 

History lesson, what pupils do in 
preparing, 34; specific things a 



teacher may do in assigning, 16; 
how to study, 41 ; study plan 
for, 40 

History question, 22 ff.; essential 
qualities of a good, 22; kind of, 
24; number to ask during a 
45-minute period, 22 ff. 

History reading card, 195; use of, 
196 

History recitation, i ff. ; attaining 
coherence, proportion, and unity 
in, 5 f. ; controlling aims of, 9 ff.; 
description of an actual, 7 ; direc- 
tions for conducting, 25 f. ; direc- 
tions for observing, 27 ff.; forms 
or types of, 16 ff.; fundamental 
qualities of, 7 ff. ; governing prin- 
ciples of, 5 ff . ; management of, 
12 ff.; standards for judging, 
27 ff.; suggestions for conducting, 
25 ff. 

History-recitation score card, 29 

History study, directions for, 45; 
effective factors in, 35 f.; by 
high-school pupils, 31, 33; list 
of questions relating to, 31 f. 

History teacher, carefully planned 
work on part of, 4; detail he 
needs to know, 4 f . ; enthusiasm 
and interest on the part of, 3 ; 
principle of guidance for, 12; 
questioning activity of, 23 ; some- 
times the chief distraction, 3. See 
Teacher 

Hobson, Elsie, quoted, 135 f. 

Homer, 79 

Hoskins, H. L., Syllabus for a 
Course in Early Europeajt His~ 
tory, 281 

House of Representatives, 20, 225 

"lb.," "ibid.," "id.," meaning and 
use of, 143 

Illinois, teaching of history in, 258 

Illustrative material, 27, 238 ff. 

Inadequate tests, character of, 163 

Indefiniteness, 10 

Indians, Iroquois, 226 

Individual recitation, 17, 19 f., 21 

Industrial progress, 74 

Information outline, 118; an ex- 
ample of, 60 f. 



INDEX 



289 



Interest, 27; devices for arousing, 
253; on part of teacher, 3 

Interpretation of source material, 
43 

J. Sterling Morton High School, 
correlation of history and Eng- 
lish literature in, 136 f. 

Johnson, Henry, cited, 157; Teach- 
ing of History in Elementary and 
Secondary Schools, 95, 278; types 
of collateral reading material sug- 
gested by, 181 f. 

Johnson, N. C, cited, 32 

Johnson, President, 92 

Johnson, Sir William, identified, 
226 

Josselyn, Homer, cited, 257 

Judd, C. H., cited, 134 ; Psychology 
of High-School Subjects, 35; 
quoted, 95 f . 

Julia Richmond High School, 157 

Junior high school, example of the 
problem-solving method in, 86 f . ; 
method of procedure in teaching 
Am-^rican history in, 99 ff . ; modes 
of procedure to use in teaching 
history in, 65 f . ; organization of 
American history for teaching 
purposes in, 218 f.; use of text- 
book in first year of, 65 ; use of 
textbook in second year of, 65 f . ; 
use of textbook in third year of, 
66 

Kansas, status of teaching history 

in, 257 
Keatinge, M. W., Studies in the 

Teaching of History, 278 
Kendall, C. N., and Stryker, F. E., 

History in the Elementary School, 

278 
Kentucky, 225 
Kirk, Annie B., cited, 205 
Kitson, H. D., How to use your 

Mind, 35, 118 
Knowlton, D. C, Illustrated Topics 

in Attcient History, 281 
Koos, L. v., quoted, 190, 191 ; 

Administration of Secondary- 
School Units, 216 



Labor systems, loi 

Laboratory method. See Source 
method 

Latin, 94, 257, 258, 259 

Lecture method, 16 ff.; attitude the 
teacher should take toward, 52 ; 
can be made to succeed in high 
school, 272 f.; modes of utilizing, 
in high school, 50 ff.; objections 
to use of, in high-school, 50; 
should not be the method, 52; as 
used in 1839 in Oneida Institute, 
49; used to serve specific pur- 
poses7 51 

Lectures, 148; taking notes on, 120 

Legends, 178 

Lesson, how to get a, 37 

Lesson planning, outline in detail 
of colonial life, 238 ff. 

Letters, 178, 182, 184; examples of 
imaginary, 130 ff. 

Lewis, E. E., quoted, 23 

Lewis, E. S., cited, 258 

Lexington, 9 

Lib by, Walter, cited, 19 n. 

Library, history teacher's profes- 
sional, 275 ff.; small classified, 
183 ff. ; twelve-book, in European 
history since 1648, 186; types of 
books to be found in a high- 
school history, 182 ; types of ma- 
terial in a teaching of history, 2 76 

Library of Congress, 283 

Literature, 72 

"Loc. cit.," meaning and use of, 

143 
Long story. See Overview 

McCoIlum, D. F., "A Scale in 
United States History," 164 ff.; 
adverse criticism of scale, 167 

McCormick, Cyrus, identified, 226 

Mace, W. H., Method in History, 
278 

McKinley, A. E., Illustrated Topics 
in American History, 282 

Magazines, 2, 117, 178, 208; cri- 
teria for judging, 208; points in 
favor of monthly, 209 f . ; points 
in favor of weekly, 209; study 
of, 210 f.; the one to use in 
current-events study, 208 ff. 



2 90 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



2; 

-I 

eel 



Magna Charta, 82 

Maine, teaching of history in, 258 

Management, general, 27; principle 

of scientific, 12; technic of, 29; 

technic of history recitation, 12 f. ; 

two examples of good recitation, 

13 ff. 

Mann, Horace, 226 

Manual training, 2 

Maps, 2, s, 12, 14, 27, 45, 46, 52; 
directions for making, 22 
sketching of, 40; to use, 238 ff 
use of, 6; value and importance 
of map work, 220 

Maps to make, 5, 11, 219 ff., 238 ff.; 
in American history, 219 f. 

Mary C. Wheeler School, corre- 
lation of history and English in, 

135 

Mason City High School, 36 

Massachusetts, 75 

Mathematics, 94, 257, 259 

Mathews, Shailer, The Spiritual 
Interpretation of History, 276 

Medieval and modern history, gen- 
eral method of procedure in 
teaching, 107 ff. See History 

Memoirs, 178 

Memoriter system, 53 

Memory questions, 19, 24 

Merit, Boyce's qualities of, 262 

Middle colonies, 104 

Middle States and Maryland His- 
tory Teachers' Association, 97 f . 

Middle West, 50 

Missouri Compromise, 225 

Models, 2 

Monro, Kate, cited, 137 

Morehouse, Frances, cited, ign., gi 

Mowry, W. A., quoted, 179 

Myths, 178 

National Education Association, 279 

Nationality, rise of, 109 

Natural science, 95 

Navigation acts, 90 

New England History Teachers' 

Association, 280 
New Jersey, Department of Public 

Instruction, 85 
New lesson, 6, 26; assignment of 

the, 29 



Newspapers, 178; special study of, 
211 

New York, 6, 75 

North America, 219 

North Central Association, 189, 190 

North Carolina, 277 

Notebook, permanent, benefits of, 
147 f.; definition of, 148; evils 
connected with use of, 146 f. ; 
form of, 149 f.; instructions rela- 
tive to making, 130; loose-leaf, 
150; problem of grading, 152 f.; 
threefold purpose underlying, 
149; types of material to appear 
in, 148 f. 

Notes, on collateral reading, 148; 
on lectures and reports, 148; pur- 
poses and uses of, 117 f. 

Note-taking, practical value of, 
117; purposes of, 118; technic 
of, 118 f.; training in, 116 ff. 

Objectives, 215 f. 

Observation work, reports on, 253 

Oneida Institute, use of lecture 
method in, 49 

"Op. cit.," meaning and use of, 143 

Oral quizzes as a method of test- 
ing collateral reading, 192 f. 

Oral reports as a means of check- 
ing collateral reading, 192 

Oral summary, 40 

Ordinance of 1787, 82 

Organization, general, of American 
history, 218 f.; prerequisites of 
a good, 218 f.; for teaching pur- 
poses, 217 ff. 

Osgood, Ellen, quoted, 158 

Outline maps, 45 

Outlines, examples of, 60 f . ; guid- 
ance, 119, 120, 148; information, 
119, 120, 148; training in making, 
119 

Overview, 11, 226; of the period of 
discovery and exploration, 226 ff. 

P. and pp., when to use, 142 
Parallel source study^ benefits de- 
rived from, 81 f. 
Parallel texts, 182, 183 
Paraphrasing, training in, 120 
Parker, S. C, cited, 86 n. 



INDEX 



291 



Pennsylvania, 75 

Pericles, Age of, 73 

Periodicals, monthly and weekly, 
things in favor of each as a 
basis for teaching current events, 
209 f. 

Personages, historical, to know and 
identify, 223 ff., 238 ff.; long and 
short list of, 223; how to use a 
long and a short list of, 224 f. 

Personality, teacher's, 3 

Physical geography, 258 

Physics, 2, 94, ISO, 181, 257, 258 

Physiography, 258 

Pictures, 2, 5, 7, 13, 27, 45, 46, 52, 
148, 253 

Planning a course, ten things in- 
volved in, 214 f. 

Plans, 148 

Plattsburg Academy, use of text- 
book method in, 53 

Poetry, historical, 182, 185 

Political history, 74 

Practice teaching, 253 f.; results of, 

253 

Preliminary questions, 14 

Preliminary survey as a factor in 
history study, 35 

Preparation, ideal for the teacher, 4 

Preparing a history lesson, what 
pupils do in, 34 

Presentation, method of, 9 

Problem method, 82 ff., 84, 85, 92 ; 
advantages of, 84 f . ; examples of, 
86 ff . ; outlining a course based 
on, 85 ; restricted form of, 92 ; 
what it is, 83 

Procedure, general method of, in 
American history, 99 ff . ; in an- 
cient history, 106 f.; in medieval 
and modern history, 107 f. 

Progress within the subject of his- 
tory, 94 ff. ; attaining, through 
general and special methods of 
procedure, 99 ff. ; chief difficulties 
connected with, 96 f. ; chief points 
to be observed by the teacher, 
105 f. ; Judd's proposed solution 
of the problem of, 95 f . ; nature 
of the problem, 94; securing, 
year by year, iioff.; two ways 
of securing, 114 f. 



Proportion, principle of, 6, 27, 29 
Pupil-activity, 25 

Qualities, fundamental, of a teach- 
ing exercise, 7; relative impor- 
tance of those which make an 
effective teacher, 262 f. 

Questions, direct, 26; double, 26; 
list to determine study-habits of 
pupils, 31 f. ; memory, 26 ; pivotal, 
238 ff.; quality of, 29; quiz, 14, 
40; thought, 26; triple, 26 

Quizzes, oral, as a mode of testing 
collateral reading, 192 f. 

Recitation, essentials to a good, 3 ff. ; 
individual, 17, 19 f., 46; review 
and drill, 18 f.; socialized, 17, 
20 f.; study, 18; test, 17; text- 
book, 17 f.; topical, 17 f. 

Reference as a goal in permanent 
notebook keeping, 149 

Reference books, 12, 45, 117 

Reference lists, 148 

Reformation, 19, 51 

Reminiscences, 178, 182, 184 

Reports, 148; oral, as a mode of 
testing collateral reading, 191 ; 
written, as a means of testing 
collateral reading, 192, 193 

Reprints, 79 

Review, 6, 13, 26, 29, 64; how to 
make valuable, 159; and drill 
recitation, 17, 18 

Revolutionary War, 89, 115 

Rickard, G.E., cited, 33, 34 ; quoted, 

43 f. 
Robinson, J. H., The New History, 

276 
Rochester Collegiate Institute, 54 
Roman Empire, 73 
Roman history. See History 
Rote work, 53 ; modified form of, 

54 
Rules for study, 36 ff. 
Russell, W. F., quoted, 49, 53, 54 
Russia, 108 

Sackett, L. W., "A Scale in Ancient 
History," 166 f.; criticism of his 
scale, 167 

Sayre, E. R., quoted, 258 



292 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



School Review, 283 

Schuyler, R. L., A Syllabus of 
American History, 282 

Science, 258; general, 150; natural, 
109 

Secondary schools, textbook method 
in, 48 f . 

Secretary of the Treasury, 87 

Senate, 20 

Senior high school, examples of 
the problem-solving method in, 
88 ff. ; general method of pro- 
cedure in teaching history in, 
loiff.; how to use textbook in 
first year of, 66 f . ; how to use 
textbook in second and third 
years of, 67 ; modes of procedure 
to use in teaching history in, 66 f . ; 
outline of progressive require- 
ments in, iioff. ; tabular view of 
textbooks in American history 
for, 235 

Seward, S. S., Note-Taking, 118 

Short story. See Overview 

Short themes, 121; examples of, 
124 f.; topics in Greek history to 
use for, 137 

Simpson, Mabel, Supervised Study 
in History, 278 n. 

Sioux City, 153, 160; instructions 
to high-school students, 150 ff. 

Sketch, 13 ; use of, 6 

Sketch map, 7 

Slater, J. R., Freshman Rhetoric, 
118 

Social development, 72 

Social progress, 74, 100 

Social Studies, Committee on, 280 

Social Studies in Secondary Edu- 
cation, 279 

Socialism, 108 

Socialistic movement, 109 

Socialized recitation, 17; descrip- 
tion of a procedure in, 20 f. 

Source books, 79; lists of, 79f. n., 
81 n. 

Source extracts, 32 

Source material, 238 ff.; use of, 
252 

Source method, 46, 76 ff., 82 ; ad- 
vantages, 78 f . ; ends to attain 
in using, 80 ; how to use, 80 f . ; 



steps in the application of, 77; 

testimonials as to success of, in 

Nebraska, 77 ff. 
Source readings, ends to attain in 

using, 80 
Sources, attitude for the teacher to 

take toward, 82; study of, 71 
Southern colonies, 104 
Special methods of procedure: lec- 
ture, 48 ff.; problem, 82 ff.; 

source, 76 ff.; textbook, 52 ff.; 

topical, 69 ff. 
Special report, 12 f., 18; taking 

notes on, 120 
Stamp Act, 90 
Stamp Act Congress, 9 
Standardized tests, steps in the 

construction of, 172 f.; what they 

should test, 172 
Standards of attainment, 4, 12 
Starch, Daniel, American History 

Test— Series A, 168 
Steeper, H. T., cited, 257 
Stenographic reports, 25 
Stevens, Romiett, cited, 23, 24, 25 
Study helps used in The University 

of Chicago High School, 38 f. 
Study recitation, 17, 18 
Studying history, directions and 

rules for, 36 ff., 46 ; methods used 

by pupils in, 32 f. 
Sugar Act of 1764, 90 
Summaries, 116, 119, 121, 148, 194; 

training in the making of, 119 f. 
Summary, 6, 7, 13, 14, 26, 29, 74, 

118 
Supervised study, aim of, 42 ; list 

of general plans for administer- 
ing, 46 f . 
Supervised study in history, 42 ff . ; 

aims set up by Rickard, 43 ; 

method of procedure used by 

Rickard, 43 f . ; technic of, 44 ff. 
Supplementary reading, 7 
Synopses, 116, 118 

Tables, statistical, 148 
Tabulations, 43, 148 
Taft, L. E., cited, 24, 25 
Taylor, R. G., Outlines of American 

Industrial History, 282 
Teacher-activity, 24, 25, 29 



INDEX 



293 



Teachers, causes of failure among, 
260 f. ; qualities which make ef- 
fective, 262 f. 

Teachers, high-school history, aca- 
demic equipment of, 246 f.; how 
they may keep up to date on 
material, 282 f. ; measuring the 
efficiency of, 259 ff.; mental and 
temperamental equipment of, 
254 ff.; methods of, as seen by 
their students, 267 ff.; need not 
be young or easy to make pupils 
appreciate history, 2 7of. ; pro- 
fessional equipment and library, 
249 f., 27s ff.; pupil's estimates 
of, 255; qualities which make a 
strong appeal to students, 256; 
subjects they teach, 257 ff.; ways 
to keep abreast of new move- 
ments, 275 

Teaching, meaning of, 10 f. 

Teaching of history, list of topics 
for a course in, 252 f. 

Teaching how to study, psychology 
as an aid to, 35 ff. ; threefold task 
of the teacher in, 34 f . 

Teggart, F. J., The Processes of 
History, 276 

Term paper, 139 ff. ; directions for 
the preparation of, 139 ff . ; steps 
in the preparation of, 112 f.; 
suitable subjects for, 145 

Term reports, 149 

Test recitation, 17 

Testing, as an aim in the recitation, 
10; collateral reading, 194; habits 
of study, 10 

Tests in history, adequate, 161 f., 
163; Davis's, 170; Harlan's, 
i7of. ; inadequate, 164 ff.; Mc- 

■ , Collum's, 164 f.; Sackett's, 166 f. ; 
standardized, 164 ff. 
F/Textbook in history, analysis of, 
234; description of a method of 
using, 60 ff . ; example of a method 
of using, 63 f . ; gradation in the 
modes of procedure in using, 58 f.; 
65 ff . ; how to study a lesson 
based on, 41 ; Johnson's three 
modes of procedure in using, 58 f . ; 
legitimate claims for, SS f. ; prob- 
lems pertaining to use of, 64; 



tabular view of, in American his- 
tory, 235; unavoidable defects 
in, 57 f. ; use of, 252 

Textbook method, 48, 52 ff., 69, 71, 
75, 76; meaning of, in original 
form, 52 ; memoriter-like use of, 
53 ; modes of procedure in the 
use of, 58 ff. 

Textbook recitation, 17, 18 

Themes, long, 148; short, 148 

Thucydides, 79 

Topical method, 69 ff.; advantages 
claimed for, 72 f.; as advocated 
by Hart in 1887, 70; favored in 
1892 by the Committee of Ten, 
71; forms of, 73 f.; list of topics 
to use, 75; progressive use of, 74 

Topics, for a course in the teaching 
of history, 252 f. ; for special re- 
ports, 238 ff.; for term papers, 
145 ; to use in American history, 

7S 

Townshend acts, 90 

Translations, 79 

Trenholme, N. E., An Outline of 
English History, 282 ; A Syllabus 
for the History of Western Eu- 
rope, 281 

Troy Female Academy, use of text- 
book method in, 54 

Tuell, Harriet E., The Study of 
Nations, 108 n. 

United States, 6, 86, loi, 219; his- 
tory of, so, 72, 73, 74, 83, 164, 
172, 173 

Unity, 21 ; how to attain, in a his- 
tory recitation, 5 ; principle of, 

5, 27, 133 
University of Texas, 165 

Van Wagenen, M. J., American His- 
tory Scales, 167 n., 714 n. 

View, tabular, of textbooks in 
American history, 235; cross- 
section, of colonial life, 237 ff. 

Viles, Jonas, Outline of American 
History for Use in High Schools, 
282 

Virginia, 73 

Voluntary discussion, 27 



2 94 



THE TEACHING OF HISTORY 



Wayland, J. W., How to teach 
American History, 278 

West, W. M., Ancient World, 134 

Whipple, G. M., How to Study 
Effectively, 35 

Whitlow, C. M., cited, 152 

Williams, A Syllabus of European 
History, 281 ; cited, 267 

Woodbridge, T. J. E., The Purpose 
of History, 276 

Word study, 67 f. 

Work, carefully planned, 4; care- 
fully prepared, 4 



World War, 108, 199, 282 

Writs of Assistance, 90 

Written work, 118, 120, 121, 134; 
concrete examples of, 122 ff.; in 
high-school history, 116 ff.; as a 
means of testing collateral read- 
ing, 193; possibilities of, 253; 
problem of English in, 134 ff.; 
problem of grading, 152 f.; types 
of, 121 ff. 

Zoology, 258 



ANNOUNCEMENTS 



REFERENCE BOOKS IN 
HISTORY 

Abbott : Roman Political Institutions 

Asser : Life of King Alfred 

Brigham : From Trail to Railway through the Appalachians 

Brigham : Geographic Influences in American History 

Callender : Economic History of the United States, 1765-1860 

Cannon : Reading References for English History 

Channing, Hart, and Turner: Guide to the Study and Reading 

of American History (Revised and Augmented Edition) 
Cheyney : Readings in English History 
Dealey : Growth of American State Constitutions 
Fess : History of Political Theory and Party Organization in the 

United States 
Hayes : British Social Politics 
Hitchcock : The Louisiana Purchase 
Keller : Colonization 
Muzzey : Readings in American History 
Myers : History as Past Ethics 
Priest: Germany since 1740 

Reinsch : Readings on American Federal Government 
Reinsch : Readings on American State Government 
Richardson, Ford, Durfee, and Lutz : Syllabus of Continental 

European History (Revised Edition) 
Riggs : Studies in United States History 
Robinson : Readings in European History, Volume I 

Volume II 

Abridged Edition 
Robinson and Beard : Readings in Modern European History 

Volume I 

Volume II 
Thallon : Readings in Greek History 
Tuell and Hatch : Selected Readings in English History 
Webster: General History of Commerce (Revised Edition) 



GINN AND COMPANY Publishers 



HIGH-SCHOOL PROBLEMS 



THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HIGH-SCHOOL SUBJECTS 

By Charles Hubbard Judd, University of Chicago. ix + 515 pages. 

A PSYCHOLOGICAL analysis of the mental processes developed in 
the student by each subject in the high-school curriculum. On these 
analyses many problems of value and method depend for their solu- 
tion. Each discussion is introduced by a summary of the psycho- 
logical facts relating to it. 

METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS (Revised) 

By Samuel Chester Parker, University of Chicago, xxvii + 529 pages, 
illustrated. 

A CAREFUL study of the principles underlying the actual class 
work of high-school teachers. The scope and method are indicated 
by some of the chapter titles : Economy in Classroom Management ; 
Reflective Thinking; Conversational Methods; Laboratory Methods; 
The Art of Questioning ; Measuring the Results of Teaching. The 
revised edition includes the best of recent developments. 

EXERCISES FOR "METHODS OF TEACHING IN HIGH SCHOOLS" 

By Samuel Chester Parker. x-f26i pages. 

A SERIES of problems and exercises which enhance the practical 
value of Dr. Parker's book, giving the student a better working 
knowledge. 

INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF 
- EDUCATION 

By Charles Hubbard Judd, University of Chicago, xii -f- 333 pages. 

This book summarizes the scientific methods employed in solving 
problems of school organization and administration which in recent 
years have resulted in much economy of time and effort and the 
elimination of nonessentials. The wealth of concrete, informing 
material makes it particularly valuable in introductory courses in 
normal schools and training classes as well as in colleges. 



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